RAMMAK. 



TRODUCTION 



M M A R 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



BY JOHN S. HART, LL.H., 

PMN.TAL OF TUP PHILADELPHIA HIGH SCHOOL; A MEMBER OP THE AMERICA 
EJilOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; . ITBOR 0? AN ENGLISH ORAMMAR, CLASS BOOK 
OP POETRY, CLASS BuOK CE PROSE, AS EXPOSITION OP THE 
CO.N'SHTVTMB OP THE UNITED STAIRS, AC., AC. 



PHILADELPHIA: 

i'UBLISIIED BY E. II BUTLER & CO. 

1862. 



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l LIBRARY OF CONGRESS,? 






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\ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. { 






HART'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PART FIRST. 



AN INTRODUCTION 



GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



3^ 

BY JOHN Sf HART, LL.D., 

LATB PRINCIPAL OF THE PHILADELPHIA HIGH SCHOOL*, A MEMBER OP THE AMERICAN 

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; AUTHOR OF AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR, CLASS BOOK 

OF POETRY, CLASS BOOK OF PROSE. AN EXPOSITION OF THE 

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, &C, &C. 



1»f 



PHILADELPHIA: 

PUBLISHED BY E. H. BUTLER & CO. 

1862. 



TEimi 



Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1862, by 

E. H. BUTLER, 

In the Office of the Clerk of the District Court of the United States in and for the 

Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 



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mears k dusenber lc Control Number 

STEREOTYPERS AND ELECTR 



11 



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B. SHERMAN ft SON, 
PRINTERS. 



PREFACE. 



In this volume the Author has selected from his larger 
Grammar those portions which are purely of an elementary 
character, and which are studied by beginners in first going 
over the subject. The whole of Prosody, all of the chapter 
on the Derivation of Words, and all the fine print matter of 
the other portions, are omitted. On the other hand, copious 
explanations, and a complete series of practical exercises, are 
appended to the several definitions and rules. The knowledge 
of each rule and definition is thus thoroughly tested and 
impressed on the memory before the pupil is allowed to pro- 
ceed to more advanced knowledge. Some slight verbal changes 
in the definitions have been introduced, to make the work 
conform to the revised edition of the Grammar. The distinc- 
tion of Possessive Adjective Pronouns is discarded, as being 
of no practical utility. The definitions of the Parts of Speech, 
with very full exercises, are all given together, at the begin- 
ning of the Etymology, before proceeding to the details under 
each, so that the pupil may learn at the outset to know at 
once to what Part of Speech every word belongs. This pre- 
liminary knowledge being once acquired and made thoroughly 
familiar, the remaining steps are comparatively easy. Parsing 
Exercises begin at once, in the first part of Etymology, and 
follow regularly all the rules and definitions, accompanied 
with frequent reviews. 

It is believed that a pupil who studies carefully the ele- 
mentary principles contained in this volume, and who goes 
faithfully through the exercises, will be prepared to enter 
with advantage upon the more minute details in the larger 
Grammar. 

1* (5) 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. Grammar is the science which treats of Lan- 
guage. 

Explanations. — Knowledge on any subject, arranged in some 
regular order, is called a Science. 

The words which people use in speaking or writing are called 
a Language. 

The object of studying Grammar is to be able to understand, 
speak, and write a language correctly. 

We say that Arithmetic is the science which treats of numbers, 
Botany is the science which treats of plants, Astronomy is the 
science which treats of the stars. So, Grammar is the science 
which treats of language. 

Note 1. — Most of the terms used in Grammar are derived from 
Greek and Latin words. The meaning and derivation of these 
terms will be given in the notes. The teacher will observe, how- 
ever, that in many instances the terms are now used in a sense 
considerably different from the original meaning. Still, the con- 
nection between the present use of the word and its original 
meaning can generally be traced, and the teacher should always 
do so, where practicable. 

Note 2. — Grammar takes its name from the Greek word gramma 
(ypamia) a letter, or a writing, because it treats particularly of 
written language. 

2. Grammar is divided into four parts ; namely, 
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Pro- 
sody. 

Note. — In this little work Prosody is left out. 

(7) 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



FIRST PART. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

3. The first part of Grammar is called Ortho- 
graphy. 

4. Orthography treats of Letters. 

Note 1. — Orthography takes its name from the Greek words 
orthos (6p06f) correct, and graphe (ypatpfj) writing, because it teaches 
the correct mode of writing. 

Note 2 — We shall treat first of letters taken separately, and 
then of the mode of forming them into syllables and words, which 
is called spelling. 

5. Letters are written characters or signs used to 
represent certain sounds of the human voice. 

6 The Letters of any Language are called its 
Alphabet. 

Note. — Alphabet takes its name from alpha (aX</>a) and beta 
(Pflra), the names of the first two letters in the Greek alphabet, 
corresponding to our a and b. Thus we often call our alphabet 
the a b c. 

7. The English Alphabet contains twenty -six letters. 

8. Letters are divided into Vowels and CONSO- 
NANTS. 

Note — Vowel takes its name from the Latin vocalis, vocal, 
because it may be sounded freely and fully by itself, without the 
aid of any other letters. Consonant takes its name from the 
Latin words con, with, and sonans, sounding, because sounding 
with another letter, that is, not capable of being sounded per- 
fectly by itself. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 9 

9. A Vowel may be fully sounded by itself. 

10. A Consonant cannot be fully sounded unless in 
connexion with a vowel 

11. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w 
and j. All the other letters are consonants. 

12. W and y are consonants when they begin a word 
or syllable. 

13. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in 
one sound; as, oi ; in voice. 

14. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in 
one sound; as, ieu in adieu. 

Note. — Diphthong and triphthong take their names from the 
Greek words phthongos (00oyy<%) sound, and dis (<5£j) and tris (rpts) t 
two and three. 

Exercise.— Which of the letters in the word 
Philadelphia are vowels? Which are consonants? 
Tell the vowels, consonants, diphthongs, and triph- 
thongs in the following words : sounding, abundant, 
lieutenant, loitering, separately, boisterous. 

Note. — The teacher will add other examples until the scholar 
becomes quite familiar with the classification. 

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

15. A has five sounds of its own, as in fate, fare, 
far, fall, fat. 

16. E has two sounds of its own, as in mete, met; 
also the sound of a. as in deign; of i, as in England; 
and of o, as in sew. 

17. I has tivo sounds of its own, as in pine,., pin; 
also the sound of e. as in machine; of u, as in flirt; 
and of y , as in filial. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

18. has four sounds of its own, as in no, not, 
nor, move; also the sound ofu, as in son. 

19. U has three sounds of its own, as in tube, tub, 
full; also the sound of e, as in bury; of i, as in busy; 
and of w, as in languid. 

20. 01 and OU are always sounded as in loin, loud. 

21. OY and OW are sounded like oi and ou. 

22. C is sounded hard like k before a, o, u, as in 
cake, colt, cup; soft like s before e, i, y, as in cent, 
cider, cypress. 

23. G is sounded hard before a, o, u, as in gave, go, 
gun ; but before e, i, y, it is sometimes hard and some- 
times soft, as in beget, begin, boggy; gem, giant, 
gypsum. 

24. Sc is sounded hard like sk before a, o, u, as in 
skate, scold, scuttle ; and soft like s before e, i, y, as in 
sceptre, science, scythe. 

WORDS AND SYLLABLES. 

25. A Word is a number of letters used together to 
represent some idea. 

26. A Syllable is so much of a word as can be 
pronounced by one impulse of the voice; as, con in 
contain. 

Note 1. — Syllable takes its name from the Greek words syl (av\) 
together, and labein (\aPeXv) to take, because it denotes that the 
letters which form a syllable are taken together, in one impulse 
of the voice. 

Note 2. — What is meant by syllable and by impulse of the 
voice can be best explained orally, that is, by the teacher actually 
sounding syllables successively in the scholar's hearing, and 
calling his attention to the manner in which the sound comes 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 

from the mouth. When one syllable is ended and another is 
about to begin, the parts of the mouth and throat used for making 
the sound, take a new position, and a sort of jerk or additional 
force is given to the voice. This additional force is what is meant 
by impulse. 

Note 3. — There are as many syllables in a word as there are 
vowels and diphthongs, not counting those which are silent or 
unsounded. 

27. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyl- 
lable; of two, a Dissyllable ; of three, ««Trisyl- 
LABLE; of more than three, a POLYSYLLABLE. 

Examples. — Truth is a monosyllable; truthful, 
a dissyllable; truth-ful-ness, a trisyllable; un-truth- 
ful-ness, a polysyllable. 

Note. — Monosyllable, dissyllable, trisyllable, and polysyllable, 
take their names from the Greek words monos (povog) one, dis (<5i?) 
two, tris (rpis) three, and poly (ro\v) many, combined with syllable. 

Exercise. — Tell to which, class each of the fol- 
lowing words belongs: begin, grammatical, boy, 
duty, silent, termination, compound. 

Note. — The teacher may add other examples at will. 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 
Words ending in y. 

28. Eule. — Words ending in y preceded by a con- 
sonant, change y into i on talcing an additional syl- 
lable; as, fancy, fanciful (not fancy ful). 

Exception. — The y is not changed into i when the 
additional syllable begins with i; as tarry, tarrying 
(not tarriing). 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note. — Words ending in y preceded by a vowel, retain the y on 
taking an additional syllable ; as, joy, joyful. Except daily (from 
day); laid, lain (from lay); paid (from pay); saith, said (from 
say) ; and their compounds, mislaid, unpaid, prepaid, &c. 

Exercise. — Spell tlie words formed by adding 
ful to beauty, duty, bounty ; by adding es and ing 
to fly, glory, spy, deny ; by adding er, est, and ness 
to lazy, ugly, holy. 

Words ending in silent e. 

29. Rule. — Words ending in silent e, drop e on 
taking an additional syllable beginning with a vowel; 
as, care, caring {not care-ing). 

Exception 1. — Words ending in ce and ge, retain 
the e before terminations beginning with a, o, u; as 
change, changeable. 

Note. — The object of this is to preserve the soft sound of 
c and g. 

Exception 2. — Die (to suffer death) makes dying, 
to prevent the doubling of the i (diing); and dye (to 
colour) retains its e (dye-ing)for the sake of distinction. 

Note. — Words ending in silent e retain the e on taking an 
additional syllable beginning with a consonant ; as, care, careful. 
Except duly, truly, awful, wisdom, nursling, judgment, abridg- 
ment, acknowledgment, lodgment, argument. 

Exercise. — Spell the words formed by adding 
ing to strive, drive, clothe; by adding able to desire, 
excuse, manage; by adding ible to sense, force. 

Correct the spelling of the following words, giving 
a rule for each correction: sillyness, paceing, peac- 
able, merryly, thriveing, busyness. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

Words ending in 11. 

30. Kule. — Words ending in 11 drop one 1 on 
taking an additional syllable beginning with a conso- 
nant, or on being compounded with another word; as, 
full, fulness, handful. 

Note. — Words ending in any other double letter are spelt in 
1 composition in the same manner as when alone ; as, stiff, stiffly. 

Exercise. — Spell the words formed by adding to 
all the words so, most, though, ways, mighty; by 
combining with and all; hurt and full. 

Doubling the final Consonant. 

31. Kule. — Monosyllables, and words accented on 
the last syllable, ending with a single consonant, pre- 
ceded by a single vowel, double that consonant on taking 
an additional syllable beginning with a vowel; as, wit, 
witty; begin, beginning. 

Explanation of Accent. — In pronouncing any long word, one of 
the syllables is always sounded in a louder and sharper tone of voice 
than the others. This loud, sharp tone of voice is called the accent. 

Note 1. — The teacher must train the pupil to distinguish by 
the ear which syllable is the accented one. Thus: How many 
syllables in the word "character?" Which of these syllables is 
pronounced in the loudest and sharpest tone? Pronounce the 
word, placing the accent on the second syllable. Pronounce it 
with the accent on the last syllable. Which is the correct way 
of pronouncing it? 

Note 2. — If the accent is not on the last syllable, or if a diph- 
thong precedes, the final consonant is not doubled on taking an 
additional syllable; as, offer, offering ; toil, toiling. 

Exercise. — Spell the words formed by adding 

ing to admit, permit, scan, split; by adding ed to 

abhor, rebel, propel. 
2 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

General Exercise. — Correct the spelling of the 
following words, and give the rule for each cor- 
rection: flyes, comelyer, impliing, bloting, shineing, 
chargable, valueable, wellcome, mercy full, smother- 
ring, boilling, dispeled, laborring, rebelion, reliev- 
ving, stifness, shaveing. 



SECOND PART. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

32. The Second Part of Grammar is called ETYMO- 
LOGY. 

33. Etymology treats of Words. 

Note 1. — Etymology takes its name from the Greek words 
etymos (Irvpos) true [root], and logos (X<5yo?) discourse or treatise, 
because it treats of the true roots and meanings of words. 

Note 2. — We shall treat of the classes into which words are 
divided, of their grammatical properties, and of the changes 
which they undergo. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

34. The different classes of words are called PARTS 
of Speech. 

Note. — Before treating each Part of Speech separately and 
fully, they will all be defined, and some exercises given by which 



ETYMOLOGY. 15 

the pupil can learn to distinguish the Parts of Speech in a 
sentence. This point should be well secured by repeated re- 
visions, before going farther. 

35. The Parts of Speech in English are nine; 
namely, the ARTICLE, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, 
Verb, Adverb, Conjunction, Preposition, and 
Interjection. 

Articles. 

36. The words a or an and the are called Articles. 

Note 1. — Article takes its name from the Latin word articulus, 
a joint. 

Note 2. — It has not been thought necessary to oblige the be- 
ginner, at this stage of his progress, to burden his memory with 
a formal definition of a class of words consisting of only two. 
The chief object of defining the classes of words is to enable the 
learner to find out by the definition or description what words 
belong to each class, instead of committing the whole list to 
memory. Farther on in the book, on page 26, a formal definition 
is given, which the scholar may learn or not, at the discretion of 
the teacher. 

Nouns. 

37. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing. 

Note 1. — Noun comes from the Latin nomen, a name, because it 
is the name of a person, place, or thing. 

Note 2. — The word thing in the foregoing definition is used 
in its widest sense, to signify not merely external objects, which 
may be seen or handled, but whatever may be a subject of thought 
or discourse. 

Note 3. — The Noun is generally taken as the starting point in 
teaching a child to analyze a sentence. The teacher therefore 
must pause here until, by repeated explanations, and by going 
over the exercises again and again, the scholar has become quite 
familiar with the nature of nouns and can distinguish them 
promptly in going through a sentence. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMA E. 

Exercises. — What is your own name? What 
part of speech is this name of yours? Ans. It is a 
noun. What is a noun? 

Give the names of any three persons that you 
know. What are these three names? Ans. They 
are nouns. What is a noun? 

What is the name of the place you live in? 
Name three other places. What are all these names 
of places? What is a noun? 

What is the name of that part of your body with 
which you hear? Name three other parts of your 
body. What are all these names of things? What 
is a noun? 

What is the name of that part of the house which 
is made to let in light? Name any three other 
things that you see. Name anything that you can 
think of, which is not in sight. What are all these 
names of things? What is a noun? 

Pick out all the nouns in the following sentence: 
In coming from Trenton to Philadelphia, I saw 
John on the boat with a satchel of books in his 
hands. 

You have been told that a or an and the are 
articles. Presently you will learn also that such 
words as good, bad, great, small, &c, are adjectives. 
Any word which makes sense with an article or an 
adjective before it, is a noun. Pick out the words 
which are nouns in the following sentences : 

The book had good covers, but bad print. 

The boy had a knife with a small blade. 

The air of the room is of a bad quality. 



ETYMOLOGY. 17 

The horse in the stable has a good disposition. 
Temperance and industry promote health 
Eeligion exalts a nation. 
Beauty is a fading flower. 

Note. — The teacher must repeat the foregoing exercises, and 
form others like them, until the learner becomes very familiar with 
the subject, and can go through any sentence and pick out the 
nouns with facility. 

Adjectives. 

38. An Adjective is a word used to qualify a noun; 
as, good man. 

Explanation. — To qualify means here to limit the meaning of 
a thing, to express some of its qualities. An adjective generally 
denotes some quality belonging to an object. It describes the 
object. It serves to show the difference between things having 
the same name, as good boy, bad boy , sweet apple, sour apple, &c. 

Note. — Adjective takes its name from the Latin adjectus, added 
to, because it is a word added to a noun. 

Exercises. — You have a pretty book. What 
part of speech is book? Ans.- It is a noun. What 
word is used here to qualify or describe your book ? 
What part of speech is pretty? What is an adjec- 
tive? 

Name three other words that you can put before 
the word book, telling what kind of a book it is. 
What are these three words, qualifying book ? 
What is an adjective? 

Put a qualifying word in the blank space before 
each of the nouns in the following sentence: I saw 

a boy with a knife cutting a stick. 

What are these three qualifying words? What is 
an adjective? 

2* B 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note. — The adjective does not always stand immediately before 
the noun which it qualifies or describes. Thus I may say, The 
studious girl, or, The girl is studious. In either case, the word 
"studious" qualifies girl. 

What adjective is there in each of the following 
sentences : 

The lesson is not difficult. 
They went home by the wrong road. 
The bird was thought to be beautiful. 
How hot you have made the fire. 

Note. — In each case, after the scholar has picked out the 
adjective, ask. which word it qualifies, and then ask for the defini- 
tion of an adjective. 

Pick out the adjectives and the nouns in the fol- 
lowing sentences: 

This new slate is broken into many pieces. 

I had a beautiful dream last night. - 

Wicked men do not have good thoughts. 

A merry heart maketh a glad countenance. 

The old window is so dirty that you cannot see 
the new houses on the other side of the street. 

Pronouns. 

39. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; 
as,, the man is happy; he is benevolent; he is useful. 

Note 1. — Pronoun takes its name from the Latin pro, for, and 
noun, because it stands for a noun. 

Note 2. — The Pronoun will be explained more fully hereafter. 
All that is necessary here is to teach the scholar the following: 

The principal Pronouns are /, thou, he, she, it; we, 
you, they; who, which, and what. 



etymology. 19 

Sentences and Phrases. 

Note. — Before defining Verbs, it will be necessary to explain 
briefly what is meant by a Sentence. The subject will come up 
again under the head of Syntax, to which it properly belongs. 

Explanation. — A man in the street says, "Fire." He means, 
"There is fire." Another man says, " Rags." He does not mean, 
"There are rags," but, "I want to buy rags." Another says, 
"Fresh fish." He means, "I have fresh fish to sell." What these 
men say does not give fully their meaning. Other words are 
needed to complete the meaning. When it is not necessary in 
this way to add words to what has been said, in order to make the 
sense complete, we say that the words form a Sentence. 

40. A Sentence is a number of words making a 
. complete sense. 

41. Two or more words rightly put together, and not 
making a complete sense, are called a Phrase. 

Verbs. 

42. A Verb is a word used to assert or affirm; as, 
the boy sleeps. 

Explanation. — To assert or afiirm means to speak or say some- 
thing of a person or thing. The verb declares that something is, 
or something is done. 

Note 1. — Verb takes its name from the Latin verbum, word, 
because it the word, that is, the most important or necessary word, 
in a sentence. 

Note 2. — The teacher must pause here, and use every variety 
of expedient that he can invent to teach the scholar to distinguish 
the Verb from the other words in a sentence, particularly from 
the Noun and the Adjective. When the scholar has learned to 
distinguish these three parts of speech, the Noun, the Adjective, 
and the Verb, he has really laid the foundation of Grammar. 
The rest of the superstructure is comparatively easy. 

Exercises. — Suppose I say, "John walks;" what 
do I assert or affirm of John? Ans. That he walks. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"What part of speech is walks? What is a verb? 

In each of the following sentences, pick out the 
word which asserts or affirms something: 

The man rode on a horse. 

The girl spoke to me. 

Clouds move over the earth. 

That which the verb asserts or affirms is generally 
some action. Some one does a thing, and the word 
used to express this fact is a verb. What word in 
the following sentence expresses action: " I wrote a 

letter?" What part of speech is ? What 

is a verb? < 

In each of the following sentences, pick out the 
word which asserts or affirms that some action takes 
place : 

The man eats his dinner. 

The boy went to school early. 

The slate fell and broke. 

Water runs down hill. 

I heard a loud noise. 

Sometimes that which the verb asserts or affirms 
is not exactly action, but rather a state of being. 
In the following sentence, what word is used to 
assert something about man? "The man resem- 
bles his father." What part of speech is -? 

What is a verb? 

In each of the following sentences, pick out the 
word which asserts or affirms: 

Thomas is here. 

William looks sick. 

A bad blot was in my book. 



ETYMOLOGY. 21 

A verb is necessary to make a finished sentence, 
that is, a sentence in which something is asserted or 
affirmed. In the following sentence, supply some 
word which will complete the sentence and make it 

affirm something: Susan into the house. 

What part of speech is the word ? "What is 

a verb? 

Supply a verb in each of the following sentences: 

The rain. upon the earth. 

Summer — hotter than winter. 

The boy idle. 

I y 0U there. 

They him in the field. 

You may often know a verb by using with it the 
pronouns /, thou, and he. Thus, "I write, thou 
writes*, he writes." You could not use these pro- 
nouns in this way with a noun; as, "I river, thou 
rivers^, he rivers." Nor could you use the pro- 
nouns thus with an adjective; as, I good, thou 
goods*, he goods." In the following sentences, 
pick out the words which you can thus use with 
the pronouns I, thou, and he : 

The cows feed in the meadows. 

They turn down the leaves. 

They wish to see which holds on best. 

Note. — The teacher will observe that he can use this test only 
sparingly at present, as it applies only to regular verbs, and in 
the present tense. But farther on, after the pupil has learned 
the conjugation, it will often assist him in picking out a verb, to 
attempt to conjugate it. The personal pronouns, if thus used 
with any other part of speech than a verb, show the absurdity of 
the thing at once. 



22 english gkammar. 

Adverbs. 

43. An Adverb is a word used to qualify a verb, 
adjective, or other adverb; as, he writes rapidly. 

Explanation. — An adverb, when used to qualify a verb, gene- 
rally shows how, when, or where some action takes place. 

Note 1. — The adverb takes its name from ad, to, and verbum, 
word or verb, because the adverb is regarded mainly as a word 
added to the verb. 

Note 2. — After the scholar has learned to distinguish nouns, 
adjectives, and verbs, he will not have much difficulty in distin- 
guishing adverbs. A few exercises will be given here. 

Exercises. — In the sentence, "the industrious 
boy recites rapidly," which word is a noun ? Which 
is a verb? Which word qualifies "boy," or tells 
what kind of boy he is? What part of speech 

is ? What is an adjective? Which word 

qualifies "recites," or tells how he recites? What 

is ? What is an adverb? Which does 

qualify here, a verb, an adjective, or another 

adverb ? 

In the phrase, " very industrious boy," what part 
of speech is industrious? What word qualifies 
industrious, or tells how industrious he is? What 

is ? What is an adverb? Which does 

qualify here, a verb, an adjective, or another 

adverb ? 

In the phrase, "recites too rapidly," what part 
of speech is rapidly ? What word qualifies rapidly, 
or tells how rapidly he recites? What part of 

speech is ? What is an adverb? Which 

does — qualify here, a verb, an adjective, or 

another adverb ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 23 

Conjunctions. 

44. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words 

and sentences; as, John and James study; John writes 

and James reads. 

Note. — The conjunction takes its name from con, together, and 
junctus, joined, because it joins together. 

Exekcises. — The phrases, "A short lesson," 
"a difficult lesson," may be united into one by con- 
necting the -words "short" and "difficult" by the 
word "but;" thus, "A short but difficult lesson." 
What part of speech is "but"? What is a con- 
junction ? 

Pick out the conjunction in this phrase: A cold 

and blustry day. What two words does 

connect ? 

In the following example, "The task is hard, but 
the scholar is not discouraged," does "but" connect 
two words, or two sentences? Which is the first 
of these sentences? Which is the second? What 
is a conjunction? 

In the following example, "I will stand, if you 
will sit," what three words make the first sentence? 
What three words make the second sentence? 
What word connects these two sentences? What 
part of speech is ? What is a conjunction? 

Pick out the conjunctions in the following sen- 
tences : 

All men, good or bad, must die. 

He ran away, because he was afraid. 

You will remain, if you are wise. 

He is merciful, though strict. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note. — In each instance, require the scholar to tell whether 
the conjunction connects words only, or sentences ; if it connects 
words, tell what; if sentences, tell what; and after each example, 
repeat the definition. 

Prepositions. 

45. A Preposition is a word placed before a noun to 
show its relation to some other word; as, I write "with 
a pen. 

Note 1. — The preposition takes its name from prce, before, and 
positus, placed, because it is placed before a noun. 

Note 2. — Prepositions and conjunctions are intimately related, 
both being connecting words. But conjunctions connect things 
of the same kind together, and connect them as equals, an adjec- 
tive with an adjective, a noun with a noun, a verb with a verb, a 
sentence with a sentence, &c. A preposition connects differently. 
It ties on, as it were, one word to another, as a sort of addition. 
Moreover, the word thus tied on by the preposition is always a 
noun, while almost any part of speech may follow a conjunction. 
The preposition also connects the noun following it, not only to 
another noun, but to other parts of speech, as a verb, an adjec- 
tive, &c. Examples: 

"I write with a pen." "With" connects "pen" (a noun) with 
"write" (a verb). It connects the act with the instrument, and 
shows the relation between them. 

"The man in the next room." "In" connects "room" with 
"man," shows a relation between the two. 

"Taller by an inch." "By" connects its dependent noun 
"inch" with "taller" (an adjective). 

"Dying of fever." The dependent noun is connected by its 
preposition "of" to "dying," a participle. 

Exercises. — " He walked on the ground." What 
part of speech is "walked?" It is a verb. [It 
expresses an action; it tells what took place.] 
What part of speech is "ground?" It is a noun. 
[It tells where the act took place.] What word is 



ETYMOLOGY. 25 

placed before "ground" to show its relation to 
"walked," or to show where he walked? What 
part of speech is ? What is a preposition? 

Note. — The teacher will explain that other words besides pre- 
positions may be placed before the noun; as "the cold ground.'' 
But these other words do not show the relation of the noun to 
another word ; they do not show the connexion or dependence of 
the noun before which they are placed. Thus, "He walked the 
cold ground." The noun "ground" has the word "cold" placed 
before it, also the word "the." Still, the relation between 
"ground" and "walked" is not shown. This is done by placing 
a preposition, "on," before the noun. 

Pick out the prepositions in the following sen- 
tences : 

The girls stand in a row before the desk. 
Eevolving in a circle. 

They ran round the room in a rude manner. 
He was captain of the company. 

Note. — In each instance, after the preposition is picked out, 
ask what noun it is placed before, and what word that noun is 
related to, or connected with, by means of the preposition. 

Interjections. 

46. An Interjection is a ivord used in making a 
sudden exclamation ; as, oh! ah! 

Note. — The interjection takes its name from inter, between, and 
jectus, thrown, because it is thrown in between other words in a 
sentence. 

General Exercises. — Tell what part of speech 
each word is in the following sentences: 

The bashful boy covered his face with his hands. 
Thomas hurt the dog severely. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Look at the very beautiful scenery on the river. 

Weeds cause great trouble and labor to the gar- 
dener. 

Good scholars study diligently and cheerfully. 

Nathan said unto David, Thou art the man. 

Active exercise in the pure air rapidly improves 
the health. 

The rich merchant lived extravagantly, but he 
suddenly became poor, and he died in a damp and 
gloomy cellar, in an exceedingly filthy condition. 

N. B. — Having given these general explanations of the Parts of 
Speech, we shall now take up each again separately, and give 
more particulars in regard to it. 



AKTICLES. 

47. An ARTICLE is a word placed be/ore a noun to 
show whether the noun is used in a definite, or in an 
indefinite sense. 

48. The Articles are a and the. 

49. A is the Indefinite Article, the is the Defi- 
nite Article. 

Explanation. — If I say, " Bring me the book," the meaning is 
definite. I ask for some particular book. But if I say, " Bring 
me a book," the meaning is indefinite, as if I had said, "Bring me 
any book." 

50. The Article a becomes an before a word begin- 
ning with a vowel sound; as, a man, an old man, an 
honest man. 

Note. — In determining whether to use a> or to use an, we 
should notice not the letter, but the real sound with which the 



ETYMOLOGY. 27 

next word begins. Sometimes a vowel at the beginning of a word 
has the sound of a consonant. Thus o in one has the sound of w; 
u in unit has the sound of y, &c. In such cases the article should 
be a. On the other hand, the consonant h at the beginning of a 
word is sometimes not sounded, as in honest, pronounced onest. 
In that case, the article should be an. The following words, and 
words derived from them, are some of those which begin with 
silent h; honor, honest, hour, heir, herb, humor. 

• 51. A or an means one, and is used only before the 
singular number ; as, a man, an apple. 

52. The is used be/ore both numbers; as, the man, 
the men. 

Exercise. — Use the indefinite article with the 
following words: inkstand, history, humble, arch, 
bird, army, unit, eulogy, onion, unicorn, heir, wonder, 
union, honor, herb, engine, yew, ewer, hunter. 

PARSING. 

Note 1. — Parsing takes its name from the Latin word pars, part, 
because it shows the several parts of speech into which a sentence 
is divided. 

Note 2. — Parsing consists in stating the grammatical properties 
and relations of words, and the rules of syntax which properly 
belong to them. The parsing of a word cannot be complete until 
the rules of syntax relating to it are understood and applied. 
But a considerable part of parsing consists in stating the gram- 
matical properties of a word by itself, as shown by etymology, 
and without reference to the other words in the sentence. The 
stating of these properties in regular order is called Etymological 
Parsing. Examples of etymological parsing will be given at the 
end of each Part of Speech. 

Note 3. — In the etymological parsing of an article, all that is 
necessary is to say that it is an article, and whether it is 
the definite, or the indefinite. It is hardly necessary to give 
examples. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

NOUNS. 

53. A No UN" is the name of any person, place, or 
thing; as, boy, school, book. 

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 

54. A Proper noun is a name given to only one of 
a class of objects; as, John, London, Delaware. 

Note. — A Proper noun should always begin with a capital letter. 

55. A Common noun is a name given to any one 
of a class of objects; as, boy, city, river. 

Explanation. — A certain class of objects are called "boys." 
The name "boy" is given to any one of that class. It is common 
to them all. One particular boy is called "John." That name 
is given to him only. It is peculiar or proper to him. So "city" 
is a name given in common to any one of another class of objects. 
But "London" is the name given to one particular city. It 
belongs peculiarly and properly to that city. Any one of a certain 
other class of objects is called a "river." The name is common 
to all such objects. But one particular object of this kind is 
called "Delaware." It belongs properly to that particular river. 

56. A Collective noun is the name of a collection 
of objects considered as one; as, army, crowd. 

Note. — A Collective noun is also called a noun of multitude. 

Exercises. — "Which of the following nouns are 
proper, and which common: james, isaiah, prophet, 
australia, island, ply mouth, town, Washington, eng- 
land, county, elizabeth, woman, table, chair, book, 
hudson. 

Which of the foregoing nouns should begin with 
a capital letter ? 

What is your own proper name? What is your 
common name ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 29 

Which of the following are collective nouns: hill, 
congregation, trees, birds, flock, regiment. 

Name four proper nouns; four common nouns; 
four collective nouns. 

GENDER. 

57. Gender is the distinction of nouns in regard to 

Sex. 

Note. — Pronouns also have gender. 

58. Nouns have three genders, Masculine Femi- 
nine, and Neuter. 

59. The Masculine denotes objects of THE MALE SEX ; 
as, boy, man. 

60. The Feminine denotes objects of THE FEMALE 

SEX; as, girl, woman. 

Note. — Many nouns in the feminine end in ess; as, poetess. 
Some end in ine; as, heroine. 

61. The Neuter denotes ANY THING WITHOUT SEX; 
as, book, river. 

62. Some nouns are either masculine or feminine; 
as, parent. These are said to be of the COMMON 
Gender; as, bird, friend. 

Note. — In speaking of small animals, or of those whose sex is 
not known or not regarded, they are often considered as without 
sex: thus, we say of a cat "it is treacherous," of an infant "it is 
beautiful," of a deer "it was killed." 

Exercises. — Pick out all the nouns in the follow- 
ing sentences, and tell what is the gender of each, 
and whether it is a proper noun or a common noun : 

The teacher explained the lesson to the boys and 
the girls. 
3* 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Mary made a fan of the feathers of a peacock. 

The hunter killed a she-bear and her cubs. 

The shepherdess had a ewe and two lambs. 

The queen and the princess were in the same 
carriage. 

The landlord turned the man and his wife and 
the children out of the house. 

Mr. Dale bought a cow for twentv dollars. 

The proprietor of the house has gone to Trenton. 

NUMBER. 

63. Number is the distinction of nouns in regard to 
Unity and Plurality. 

Note. — Pronouns also and verbs have Number. 

64. Nouns have two numbers; the SINGULAR and 
the Plural. 

65. The Singular denotes ONE, the Plural more 

THAN ONE. 

Mode of forming the Plural. 

66. The Plural of nouns is generally formed by 
adding s to the Singular ; as, book, books. 

Exception 1. — The Plural of Nouns ending in s, 
sh, ch soft, x, and z, is formed by adding es; as, miss, 
misses; lash, lashes; church, churches; box, boxes; 
topaz, topazes. 

Note. — Nouns ending in o differ as to the mode of forming the 
plural. Some form the plural by adding es; as, cargo, cargoes. 
Others form the plural by adding simply s ; as, canto, cantos. 

Exception 2. — The Plural of Nouns ending in 



ETYMOLOGY. 



31 



single f or fe is formed by changing f or fe into ves; 
as, loaf ; loaves; life, lives. 

Exception 3. — The Plural of Nouns ending in y 
after a consonant, is formed by changing y into ies; as, 
lady, ladies. 

Note. — Nouns ending in y after a vowel do not change y into 
ies; as, day, days. 

67. Nouns irregular in the Plural. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Man 


men 


Tooth 


teeth 


Woman 


women 


Goose 


geese 


Child 


children 


Mouse 


mice 


Foot 


feet 


Louse 


lice 


Ox 


oxen 







Exercises.— Change the following nouns into the 
plural, and give the rule for each change : 

Sky, church, army, wolf, knife, leaf, wish, cruci- 
fix, fish, crutch, monarch, peach, patriarch, kiss, sex, 
pony, ox, calf, muff, leaf, radish, valley, turkey, half, 
money, thief. 

General Exercises. — Pick out all the nouns in 
the following sentences, and state in regard to each 
(1.) whether it is proper or common, (2.) what is its 
gender, and (3.) what is its number : 

James and his sister study their lesson in the 
same book. 

I learned the facts from Mary while going home. 

A great many pigeons were seen on the top of 
the house. 

Mice are great thieves ; they exercise their nimble 
feet when they hear the cat coming. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PERSON. 



68. Person is the distinction of nouns in their rela- 
tion to the speaker. 

Note. — Every noun or pronoun must represent either the 
speaker, who is supposed to utter the sentence, the person spoken 
to, or some person or thing spoken of. These three relations of a 
noun are called Persons. 

69. Nouns have three persons, First, Second, and 
Third. 

Note. — Pronouns and verbs also have the distinction of Person. 

70. The First person is THE SPEAKER, the Second is 
THE ONE SPOKEN TO, the Third is THE ONE SPOKEN 
OF. 

Examples. — First person, U I, Paul, beseech you;" 
second person, " Children, obey your parents;" third 
person, "The children obey their parents." 

Note. — The distinction of person pertains chiefly to pronouns. 
Nouns are very rarely in the first person. In the great majority 
of instances, the noun is in the third person. 

Exercises. — Pick out all the nouns in the follow- 
ing sentences, and tell in regard to each (1.) whether 
it is proper or common, (2.) what is its gender. (3.) 
its number, and (4.) its person: 

I, the captain of this company, gave the order. 

John, take the slate into the next room. 

Parents are kind to their children. 

Parents, be kind to your children. 

case. 

71. Case distinguishes the relation of a noun to some 
verb, preposition, or other noun. 



ETYMOLOGY. 33 

72. Nouns have three cases, NOMINATIVE, POSSES- 
SIVE, and Objective. 

73. The Nominative Case is that in which a noun 

IS THE SUBJECT OF A VERB. 

74. The Possessive Case is that which DENOTES 

OWNERSHIP OR POSSESSION. 

75. The Objective Case is that in which THE NOUN 
IS THE OBJECT OF SOME VERB OR PREPOSITION. 

Note 1. — Pronouns have cases, in the same manner as nouns. 
Note 2. — A noun coming after a preposition is in the objective 
case. 

Exercises. — Sow to find the Nominative. — The 
subject of the verb may be found by putting "who" 
or "what" before the verb and asking the question. 
Example : " A man bought a hat." Who bought ? 
Ans. Man. Therefore, "man" is the subject of the 
verb "bought," and is in the nominative case. 

Find the subject of the verb in each of the follow- 
ing sentences > 

A butcher killed a calf. 
John hurt William. 
William hurt John. 
A horse kicked a man. 
A man kicked a horse. 
Idleness produces poverty. 
Poverty produces idleness. 
Sow to find the Objective. — The object of a verb or 
preposition may be found by putting "whom" or 
"what" after the verb or preposition and asking the 
question. 

Examples: "William hurt his sister." Hurt 
3 C 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

whom? Ans. Sister. Therefore, "sister" is the 
object of the verb "hurt." 

"William went into the street." Into what? 
Ans. Street. Therefore, "street" is the object of 
the preposition "into." 

Find the object of each of the verbs in the fore- 
going sentences. 

Find the object of each of the prepositions in the 
following sentence : 

William put a hat on a table in the dining-room 
at the time of recess when the family were at dinner. 

Additional Exercises. — "John writes." In 
what case is John ? Why ? 

In what case is horse in the sentence, " The" horse 
runs"? Why? 

In what case is James in the sentence, "James 
strikes the table"? Why? In what case is table? 
Why? 

"John writes a letter." In what case is letter? 
Why ? In what case is John ? Why ? 

"Charles reads a book." In what case is Charles ? 
Why? In what case is booh ? Why? 

"Thomas brings books to school." What case 
is Thomas? Why? What case is books? Why? 
What case is school? Why? 

"William sees a spot on the wall." In what case 
is William? Why? Spat? Why? Wall? Why? 

Review Exercise. — Pick out all the nouns in 
the following sentences, and tell in regard to each 
(1.) whether it is common or proper, (2.) its gender, 
(3.) its number, (4.) its person, (5.) its case: 



ETYMOLOGY. 35 

Samuel has a pencil in the bottom of his pocket. 
Elizabeth sees a man through the window. 

FORM OF THE CASES. 

76. The Nominative and Ohjective cases are alike. 

77. The Possessive singular is formed from the nomi- 
native singular, by adding an apostrophe and s. 

78. The Possessive plural is formed from the nomi- 
native plural, by adding an apostrophe only when the 
plural ends in s, and by adding both the apostrophe 
and s when the plural does not end in s. 

Exercise. — Write the following nouns in the 
possessive case, singular: dog, class, baby, boy, 
James, Thomas, Jane. 

Write the following nouns in the possessive case, 
plural: attorney, lawyer, mother, beauty, ox. mon- 
arch, dandy, dray. 

Note. — To decline a word is to give its various cases and 
numbers. 

79. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj. 

Friend friencPs friend friends friends 1 friends 
Man man's man men men's men 

Church church's church churches churches 1 churches 
Lady lady's lady ladies ladies 1 ladies. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

Sentence. — "John went home." 

Model. — " John" (1.) is a noun, it is the name of 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a person; (2.) a proper noun, it is the name of an 
individual; (3.) of the masculine gender, it denotes 
a male; (4.) in the singular number, it denotes but 
one ; (5.) in the third person, it is spoken of; (6.) in 
the nominative case, it is the subject of the verb 
''went." 

Note. — The figures inserted in this model are not to be recited. 
They are put in to show the order in which the several properties 
of the word are to be given. These six items must be given, and 
given in this order, in parsing every noun. The scholar in learn- 
ing, and the teacher in hearing the recitation, by following the 
order of the figures may know that nothing is omitted. 

Parse all the Nouns in the following sentences: 
"William rode upon the horse. 
In the beginning God created the heavens and 
the earth. 

They placed the coal upon the fire. 

ADJECTIVES. 

80. An Adjective is a word used to qualify a 
noun ; as, good man. 

81. Nouns become adjectives when they are used to 
express some quality of another noun; as, gold ring, 
sea water. 

82. Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns, and 
admit of number and case; as, our superiors, his 
betters, by fifties, for twenty's sake, &c. 

83. Adjectives preceded by the definite article are 
often used as nouns; as, "The little that was known 
of himP When the expression refers to persons, the 
adjective is always considered plural ; as, "The good," 
meaning good men. 



ETYMOLOGY. 37 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

84. Adjectives which express number are called 
Numerals. 

85. Numeral Adjectives are of three kinds, — the 
Cardinal, Ordinal, and Multiplicative. 

86. The Cardinal Adjectives are, one, two, three, 
four, &c. 

87. The Ordinal Adjectives are, first, second, third, 
fourth, &c- 

88. The Multiplicative are, single, double, triple, 
quadruple, &c. 

COMPARISON of adjectives. 

89. Adjectives are varied by Comparison. 

90. The Degrees of Comparison are three, the POSI- 
TIVE, Comparative, and Superlative. 

91. The Comparative and Superlative are formed by 
adding er and est to the Positive; as, great, greater, 
greatest. 

92. Adjectives are also compared by prefixing to the 
Positive the ivords more and most, less and least; as, 
numerous; more numerous, most numerous; less 
numerous, least numerous. 

93. Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared 
by the first mode, namely, by er and est. 

94. Adjectives of more than one syllable are generally 
compared by the second mode, namely, by more and 
most, less and least. 

95. Dissyllables ending in y and e generally take er 
and est; as, happy, happier, happiest; able, abler, 
ablest. 

4 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

96. Numeral adjectives are incapable of comparison. 

97. ADJECTIVES COMPARED IRREGULARLY. 



Positive. 

Good 


Comparative. 
better 


Superlative. 
best 


bad 
little 


worse 
less 


worst 
least 


much 
far 


more 
farther 


most 
farthest 



PARSING EXERCISES. 

Parse "wise" in the sentence, "Solomon was a 
wise king." 

Model: "Wise (1.) is an adjective, it is used to 
qualify the name "king;" (2.) it is in the positive 
degree, compared "wise, wiser, wisest." 

Parse all the nouns and adjectives in the follow- 
ing sentences: 

A wise son maketh a glad father. 

Twenty large vessels came into New York in one 
day. 

Prompt obedience in a soldier often secures a 
brilliant victory. 

William wanted a sweeter orange. 

He gave a double eagle for a silk dress for his 
third daughter. 

Note. — In parsing a numeral adjective, you state (1.) that it is 
an adjective, with the reason, and (2.) that it is a numeral adjec- 
tive and not compared. 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 

PRONOUNS. 

98. A FRONOUN is a word used in the place of a 

noun; as, " The man is happy because he is benevolent.' 1 ' 1 

Explanation. — If we had no such words as pronouns, the 
nouns for which they stand would have to be repeated. Thus, in 
the example given, if there were no such word as " he," we would 
have to say, " The man is happy, because the man is useful." In 
long sentences, containing a good many particulars, the repetition 
of the noun would become so frequent as to be very disagreeable. 
Thus, the sentence, "William gave his penknife to Henry, and he 
lent it to Mary to peel her apple with it," would become, "William 
gave William's penknife to Henry, and Henry lent the penknife to 
Mary to peel Mary's apple with the penknife." 

99. Pronouns are divided into three hinds or classes ; 
Personal ; Relative, and Adjective. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

100. The Personal Pronouns are five ; I, thou, he, 
she, it; with their plurals, we, you, they. 

101. They are called Personal Pronouns because 
they denote the person by themselves, and without refer- 
ence to any other word. 

Note. — In the sentence, "/wrote it," we know at once what 
person the pronoun "I" is. This word by itself denotes the first 
person. It never denotes any other person. In the phrase, 
" Who wrote it," the pronoun "who" may, or may not, be first 
person. If the complete sentence be, "It was / who wrote it." 
" who" would be first person, because it refers to " I," the perso \ 
speaking. If the complete sentence be, " It was he who wrote it," 1 
or " the man who wrote it," "who" would be third person, because 
it refers to "he" or "man." The pronoun "who" does not by 
itself denote the person. 

102. Personal Pronouns have Gender, Number^ 
Person, and Case. 



40 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



103. Declension of the Personal Pronouns. 
First Person — Masc. or Fern. 

Singular. Plural. 



Nom. 


/ 


Nom. we 


Poss. 


my, or mine 


Poss. our, or ours 


Obj. 


me 


Obj. us. 




Second Person — Masc. or Fern. 




Singular. Plural. 


Nom. 


thou 


Nom. you 


Poss. 


thy, or thine 


Poss. your, or yours 


Obj. 


thee 


Obj. you. 




Third Person — Masculine. 




Singular. Plural. 


Nom. 


he 


Nom. they 


Poss. 


his 


Poss. their, or theirs 


Obj. 


him 


Obj. them. 




Third Person — Feminine. 




Singular. Plural. 


Nom. 


she 


Nom. they 


Poss. 


her, or hers 


Poss. their, or theirs 


Obj. 


her 


Obj. them. 




Third Person — Neuter. 




Singular. Plural. 


Nom. 


it 


Nom. they 


Poss. 


its 


Poss. their, or theirs 


Obj. 


it 


Obj. them. 



Nots. — The first and second persons being always present to 
the view, their sex is supposed to be known. A separate form, 
therefore, is not needed to distinguish the sex, as it is in the third 
person, where that which is spoken of is, or may be, absent. 



ETYMOLOGY. 41 

104. The adjective own is frequently found connected 
with the possessive case of the personal pronoun, in 
order to make the possessive emphatic; thus, "It is 
your own fault." 

105. The Possessives hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, 
should never be written with an apostrophe; thus, her's, 
it's, our's, your's, their's. 

106. In the second person, the plural is generally 
used for the \ singular. Thus, you is used for thou, 
your or jours for thy or thine, and you for thee. 

Explanation. — If I say, "Mary, do you hear rae?" "you" 
refers to Mary, and is singular in meaning, though its form is 
plural. 

107. In prayers to God, and on other solemn occa- 
sions, we use thou, thy or thine, and thee for the 
singular. 

Compound Personal Pronouns. 

108. Myself, thyself, herself, and itself, are called 
Compound Personal Pronouns, 

109. lithe Compound Personal Pronouns, the nomi- 
native and objective cases are alike, and the possessive 
is wanting. 

110. Declension of the Compound Personal Pronouns. 
First Person — Masc. or Fern. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. myself Nom. ourselves 



Poss. (wanting) 
Obj. myself 
4* 



Poss. (wanting) 
Obj. ourselves. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Second Person — Masc. or Pern. 

Singular. Plural. 



Nom. thyself 
Poss. (wanting) 
Obj. thyself 



Nom. yourselves 

Poss. (wanting) 

Obj. yourselves. 

Third Person — Masculine. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. themselves 

Poss. (wanting) 

Obj. themselves. 



Nom. himself 
Poss. (wanting) 
Obj. himself 



Third Person — Feminine. 

Singular. Plural. 



Nom. herself 
Poss. (wanting) 
Obj. herself 



Nom. themselves 
Poss. (wanting) 
Obj. themselves. 



Third Person — Neuter. 

Singular. Plural. 



Nom. itself 
Poss. (wanting) 
Obj. itself 



Nom. themselves 
Poss. (wanting) 
Obj. themselves. 



PARSING EXERCISES. 

Explanation. — The person, gender, number, and case of a 
personal pronoun are generally known by its form. 

Exception 1. In the first and second persons, however, the 
gender cannot be known by the form of the word. The pronoun 
will be whatever gender the noun is, to which it. refers. Thus, 
in the sentence, "Mary, will you bring me the book?" "you" is 
feminine, because it refers to Mary. If the noun referred to is 
not given, as, "Will you bring me the book?" you say that the 
pronoun is masculine or feminine. 

Exception 2. So in the third person plural, "they, theirs, 
them," the gender cannot be known by the form of the pronoun, 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

but must be found by referring to the noun for which it stands. 
Thus, in the sentences, " The boys were here when you saw them" 
"The girls were here when you saw them" " The books were 
here when you saw them" the pronoun " them" is masculine in 
the first sentence, feminine in the second, and neuter in the third. 

Exception3. In the second person plural, "you," and in the 
third person singular neuter, "it," the nominative and objective 
cases have the same form. To find, therefore, in any particular 
instance, whether "you" and "it" are nominative or objective, 
you have to refer to the general meaning of the sentence, as you do 
in finding the case of a noun. (See Exercises under Article 75.) 

Exception 4. "You" and "yours" are always plural in form. 
But to know whether the meaning is singular, you must refer to 
the noun for which they stand, Thus, in the sentence, "William, 
I heard you talking," "you" is singular. But, in the sentence, 
"Boys, I heard you talking," "you" is plural. 

Parse " he" in the sentence, "When John was at 
school, he wrote a letter to his father. " 

Model. — "He" is (1.) a personal pronoun, (2.) 
third person, (3.) masculine gender, (4.) singular 
number, (5.) nominative case. 

Parse all the Personal Pronouns in the following 
examples : 

The teacher said to the boys of her class, " I want 
you to take your slates and raise them quietly." 

The teacher said to the head boy, "I want you to 
take your slate and raise it quietly." 

Mary, before going to sleep, said, " Our Father, 
who art in heaven, I know that thou art merciful 
and kind to thy children, who put their trust in 
thee. Teach me to do thy will, forgive my sins, 
guard and protect me, and make me thine forever." 

John took his toys to his cousin's house, and 
showed them to her. She said, Your parents are 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

kind to spend their money in presents for yon. 
Mine cannot afford to give toys to me, but my play- 
mates will lend theirs to me. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

111. The Relative Pronouns are^ who, which, and 
that. 

112. These are called Relative Pronouns because 
they relate to some word going before, called the antece- 
dent ; as, "He who wishes to be learned, must be 
studious." 

Example. — "John, who received the gold medal, 
which was given for good behaviour, was the best 
boy that was in the school." "Who" relates to 
John, "which" to medal, and "that" to scholar. 
What is the antecedent of who? — of which? — of 
what? 

Note. — Every pronoun, indeed, necessarily relates to the word 
which it represents. But this relation is not the leading and 
prominent idea in any except the Relative pronouns. In each of 
the three classes of pronouns, it is the leading and prominent idea 
which gives name to the class. Thus, the leading idea in the 
Personal pronouns is the distinction of Person ; in the Relative 
pronouns, it is the relation to the antecedent ; in the Adjective 
pronouns, it is the dependence of the word upon some noun in the 
manner of an adjective. 

113. In speaking of persons, we use the Relative 
who; as, "The lady who called at the house." In 
speaking of inferior animals, or things without life, we 
use which; as, "The horse which my father bought" 
" The pencil which the teacher gave me" 

114. That is often used in speaking either of persons 



ETYMOLOGY. 



45 



or things; as, the best boy that lives; the same booh 
that was lost 

115. Who and which are alike in both numbers. 



116. Declension of Who. 

Singular. Plural, 



Nom. who 
Poss. whose 
Obj. • whom 



Nom. who 
Poss. whose 
Obj. whom. 



117. Declension of Wm.CE.. 

Plural. 

Nom. which 
Poss. w^ose 
Obj. which. 



Singular. 

Nom, which 
Poss. w^ose 
Obj. w/wcA 
118. That is indeclinable 



Compound Relatives. 

119. What is a Compound Kelative, including 
both the relative and the antecedent. 

120. What is equivalent in the singular to that 
which, and in the plural to those which. 

Examples. — In the singular, "Give me what I 
want," means "that (thing) which I want;" in the 
plural, " What appear to be faults," means "Those 
(things) which appear to be faults." 

121. Who, which, and what, when joined with ever 
or soever, are also Compound Relatives ; thus, who- 
ever means any one who; whatsoever means any- 
thing which, &c. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

122. The Compound Relatives thus formed are six, 
namely, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichso- 
ever, whatever, and whatsoever. 

123. Whosoever is regularly declined like who; 
thus, 





Singular. 




Plural. 


Norn. 


whosoever 


Nom. 


whosoever 


Poss. 


whosesoever 


Poss. 


whosesoever 


Obj. 


whomsoever 


Obj. 


whomsoever. 



124. All the other Compound relatives are indeclin- 
able. 

Note. — Who, which, what, and their compounds, have also 
various other uses as Interrogatives and Responsives, and as 
Adjective Pronouns. See larger Grammar. 

Eule. — Relative Pronouns are of the same gender, 
number, and person as their antecedents. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

Parse "who," in the sentence, "John, who was at 
school, wrote a letter to his father." 

Model. — "Who" is (1.) a relative pronoun, re- 
lating to "John" for its antecedent; (2.) it is third 
person, (3.) singular number, (4.) and masculine 
gender, to agree with "John;" and (5.) is in the 
nominative case. 

Note. — When the case of the pronoun is not determined by its 
form, as in the nominative and objective of which, that, and what, 
it must be determined as the nominative or objective of a noun is, 
by inquiring whether it is the subject or the object of the verb, &c. 
See Exercises under Article 75. 

Parse the Kelative Pronouns in the following 
sentences : 



ETYMOLOGY. 47 

A thief, who stole a cow which belonged to a 
poor man, was caught in the same trap that had 
been laid for him. 

Children, who fear the Lord, obey their parents. 

The man of whom I bought the knife, which I 
lost, gave a better knife to me in its place. 

The bird whose nest John robbed, uttered pitiful 
cries. 

Parse the personal pronouns in the foregoing 
sentences. 

Parse the adjectives, nouns, and articles. 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

125. The Adjective Pronouns are so called be- 
cause they depend upon a noun, as an adjective does. 

126. The Adjective Pronouns are subdivided into 
three kinds or classes; viz. DISTRIBUTIVE, DEMON- 
STRATIVE, and Indefinite. 

Note. — My, thy, his, her, its, our, your, and their (which have 
been given as personal pronouns in the possessive case) are some- 
times called Possessive Adjective Pronouns. 

Distributives. 

127. The Distributive Adjective Pronouns are, 
each, every, either, neither. 

128. These are called Distributives, because they 
refer separately and singly to each person or thing 
of a number of persons or things. The Distributive 
Adjective Pronouns, therefore, are all in the singular 
number. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

129. Each is used ichen speaking of ttco or more. 
Example: "Each of you will go directly home." This 
will be correct whether it is addressed to two persons, or 
to more than two. 

130. Every is never used except when speaking 
of more than two. Example: "Every one of you 
icill go directly home." This would not be correct if 
addressed to only two persons. 

181. Each and every mean all that make up the 
number, although taken separately. 

182. Either means one or the other, but not both. 
It is used, therefore ichen speaking of but two persons 
or things. 

133. Neither means not either. 

Demonstratives. 

134. The Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns are, 
this and that, with their plurals, these and those. 

135. These are called DEMONSTRATIVES, because 
they point out the objects to which they relate in a 
definite manner; thus, This boy, not that boy ; These 
men. not those men. 

Indefinites. 

136. The Indefinite Adjective Pronouns are, any, 
all, such, whole, some, both, one, none, other, 
another. 

137. These are called Indefinites, because they 
point out the objects to which they relate in an inde- 
finite manner. 



ETYMOLOGY. 49 

138. One, Other, Another, are sometimes used 
as nouns. When thus used, they are declined. Thus: 





( Nom. 


One 




t Nom. 


Other 


Sing. 


] Poss. 


One's 


Sing. 


J Poss. 


Other's 




(Obj. 


One 




( Obj. 


Other 




i Nom. 


Ones 




r Nom. 


Others 


Plur. - 


Poss. 


Ones' 


Plur. 


< Poss. 


Others' 




tObj. 


Ones. 




(Obj. 


Others. 



139. Another {5 merely the article an and other, 
and is used only in the singular number. 

SNom. Another 
Poss. Another's 
Obj. Another. 

PARSING- EXERCISES. 

Parse "this" in the sentence, "John wrote this 
letter." 

Model. — " This" (1.) is a demonstrative adjective 
pronoun, (2.) singular number, (3.) and belongs to 
"letter." 

Parse the Adjective Pronouns in the following 
sentences : 

Every person who receives these favors, should 
be thankful for them. 

William, where is that book which I gave to you 
on Monday, and that other book which you received 
on Tuesday ? Ans. I have both books ; each is in 
its right place. 

The father said to his son, Do you remember any 
of those stories which you heard in either of the 
5 D 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

lectures of last week ? The son replied, I do, and I 
will tell them and some others to you. 

Parse all the other Pronouns in the foregoing 
sentences. 

Parse all the Adjectives, Nouns, and Articles. 

YEKBS. 

140. A Yerb is a ivord used to assert or affirm; 
as, "John strikes the table" 

Attributes of Verbs. 

141. Verbs have Yoice, Mood, Tense, Number, 
and Person. 

Certain parts of the verb also are called Participles. 

voice. 

142. YoiCE is that attribute of the verb which de- 
notes whether the subject or nominative of the verb ACTS, 
or IS ACTED UPON. 

Explanation. — Take the sentence, "John strikes the table." 
The subject or nominative of the verb is John, who performs the 
action. It is of him that the assertion is made. But suppose 
the same action to be expressed, thus: "The table is struck by 
John." Here, the subject or nominative of the verb is changed. 
It is of the table that the assertion is made. In the first form of 
the sentence, the subject of the verb acts; in the second form, 
the subject is acted upon. That attribute of a verb by which it 
denotes whether the subject of the affirmation acts, or is acted 
upon, is called Voice. 

In forming the Passive Voice of a verb, and in forming some 
of the Moods and Tenses, certain other words are used in con- 
nexion with the verb, and make a part of it. Thus in the 



ETYMOLOGY. 51 

sentence, "The lesson is learned," "is" must be taken with 
"learned." The verb is not "learned" by itself, nor "is" by 
itself, but "is learned" taken together. 

143. Verbs have two voices, the Active, and the 
Passive. 

144. The Actiye Voice is that which denotes that 
the subject or nominative of the verb acts, or does the 
thing mentioned; as, "John strikes the table." 

145* The Passiye Voice is that which denotes that 
the subject or nominative of the verb is acted upon ; as, 
"The table is struck by John" 

MOOD. 

146. Mood is that attribute of a verb by which it 

denotes the manner or way in ivhich the assertion is 

expressed. 

Note. — Mood is only another form of the word "mode," and 
signifies manner, or way. 

147. The assertion may be expressed in five dif- 
ferent ways ; thus, I study, If I study, I may study, 
Study, To study. 

148. Verbs therefore have five Moods ; the INDICA- 
TIVE, the Subjunctive, the Potential, the Impera- 
tive, and the Infinitive. 

149. The Indicative Mood is that form of the verb 
in which the assertion is expressed directly and without 
limitation. 

Explanation. — When we affirm or assert a thing, as if we were 
certain of it, then the verb will be in the Indicative mood ; as, 
The sun shines. My mother loves me. 

Note. — The Indicative mood is also used in asking direct 
questions; as, Does the sun shine? Does my mother love me? 
This is sometimes called the Interrogative form. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

150. The Subjunctive Mood is that form of the 
verb in which the assertion is expressed as an uncer- 
tainty. 

Explanation. — When we affirm or assert a thing in a way that 
shows that it is not a certainty, as, If I live the thing will be 
accomplished ; Though he slay me yet will I trust him ; Unless he 
comes he will lose his place: the verb will be in the Subjunctive 
mood. 

151. The Subjunctive mood is generally preceded 
by a conjunction, such as if though, although, unless, 
except, whether, or lest. 

152. The Subjunctive mood is always accom- 
panied with another verb in some other mood. 
Without this it cannot make complete sense. Thus, 
Though he studies diligently, he may not succeed. 

153. The Potential Mood is that form of the verb 
which expresses possibility, liberty, power, willingness, 
or obligation. 

Explanation. — To say, A thing may be, or might be, expresses 
possibility. To say, You may do it, or You might do it, is giving 
liberty to do it. To say, You can do it, or You could do it, shows 
that you have the power to do it. To say, You would do it, 
expresses a willingness to do it. To say, You must do it, expresses 
an obligation to do it. 

Note. — The Potential mood is also used in asking questions ; 
as, May I write ? Must I write ? &c. 

154. A verb in the Potential mood is always 
accompanied by some one of the words may, can, 
must, might, could, would, or should; and this ac- 
companying word is considered a part of the verb. 

155. The Imperative Mood is that form of the 
verb which is used to command, exhort, entreat, or 
permit. 



ETYMOLOGY. 53 

Examples.-— " Soldiers, march" "March" is used 
to command. 

11 Pity the sorrows of a poor old man." "Pity" 
is used to entreat or beg. 

"Fear God and keep his commandments, for this 
is the whole duty of man." "Fear" and "keep" 
are used to exhort, or persuade, with a reason. 

4 Sit near me, if you wish." "Sit" is used to 
permit or allow. 

156. The nominative case of a verb in the Impe- 
rative mood will always be thou or you, but it will 
seldom be expressed. Example: " Sit still, " means 
u Thou or you sit still." 

157. The Infinitive Mood is that form of the verb 
which is not limited to a subject, or tvhich has no subject. 

158. The Infinitive mood usually has the prepo- 
sition to before it, and the preposition in this case is 
considered a part of the verb. 

Example. — " He told me" to sit still, if I wished to 
hear" "To sit" and "to hear" are in the Infinitive 
mood. 

Exercise. — Tell the mood of each verb in the 
following sentences : 

God said, "Children, obey your parents." You 
should keep this commandment, if you wish to 
obtain the reward, which he promises, which is that 
your days may be long in the land. 

The shepherd takes care of his sheep. If they 

wander near a precipice, he uses a crook to draw 

them away, for they are timid animals. If he ran 

towards them, they might fall over into the gulf. 
5* 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Listen to the merry bells. I listen to them with 
delight. You may listen to them without growing 
weary, if you delight to listen to sweet music. 

TENSE. 

159. Tense is that attribute of a verb by which it 
expresses distinctions of Time. 

160. There are six tenses, the Present, the Past ; 
the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First Future, 
and the Second Future. 

Explanations. — The present time is that which is now, as 
"to-day," "this minute," &c. The past time is that which is 
gone by, as "yesterday," "last year," &c. Future time is that 
which is to come, as "to-morrow," "next year," &c. 

The words here used to denote time are nouns, or a noun and 
an adjective. But a verb may be likewise used to denote the 
time of an event. Example: "He is sick." The form of the 
verb "is" denotes that he is sick now. "He was sick." The 
form of the verb "was" denotes that he was sick at some time 
which is past. "He will be sick." The form of the verb "will 
be" denotes that he will be sick in some future time. 

This changing the form of the verb to denote distinctions of 
time is called Tense. 

Tense is a corruption of the Latin word tempus, time. 

There are three principal distinctions of time, namely, present, 
past, and future. So there are three principal tenses, namely, 
the present, the past, and the future. 

161. The Present Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes present time ; as, I write. 

162. The Past Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes simply past time; as } "I wrote." 

Note. — This is sometimes called the Imperfect Tense. 

163. The Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 

which denotes what is past and finished, hut connected 
also with the present time; as, /have written. 

Explanation. — An event may be past and finished, when the 
period of time referred to is not all past, but comes down to the 
present moment. Example : "I have recited my lesson this morn- 
ing." Here, "this morning" is the period of time referred to, 
and this period is not all past yet. But the reciting of the lesson 
is finished. The thing then was done in a period of time of 
which the present time is a part. It is therefore a past and 
finished act, but connected also with the present time. 

That form of the verb which enables it to express this peculiar 
distinction of past time, is called the Perfect tense. 

164. A verb in the Perfect tense is always ac- 
companied by one of the words have, hast, or has, 
and this accompanying word is considered a part 
of the verb. 

165. The Pluperfect Tense is that form of the 
verb which denotes what is past and finished, before 
some other event which is also past ; as, /had written 
the letter, before it was called for. 

Explanation. — An event may have happened some time ago, 
and before another event which also happened some time ago. 
Example: "I had washed my hands when they called me to 
breakfast." Here the washing and the calling both occurred in 
past time, but the washing occurred before the calling. 

That form of the verb which enables it to express this addi- 
tional distinction of past time is called the Pluperfect tense. 

166. A verb in the Pluperfect tense, in the Indi- 
cative mood, is always accompanied by one of the 
words had, orhadst, and this accompanying word is 
considered a part of the verb 

167. The First Future Tense is that form of the 
verb which denotes simply future time ; as, I shall 
write. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

168. A verb in the First Future tense is always 
accompanied by some one of the words shall, shalt, 
will, or wilt, and this accompanying word is con- 
sidered a part of the verb. 

169. The Second Future Tense is that form of 
the verb which denotes a future time, prior to some other 
time which is itself future ; as, I shall have written 
the letter before it will be called for. 

Explanation. — Here, the writing of the letter and the calling 
for it are both future. They are both to take place hereafter. 
But the writing will be done and finished before the calling for it. 

That form of the verb which enables it to express this peculiar 
distinction of future time is called the Second Future tense. It 
is also sometimes called the Future Perfect. It has the same 
relation to the Future that the Perfect has to the Past. 

Prior means before. 

170. A verb in the Second Future tense is always 
accompanied by two other words, namely, either 
shall have, shalt have, will have, or wilt have, and 
these accompanying words are considered a part of 
the verb. 

PARTICIPLES. 

171. A Participle is that form of the verb which 
partakes of the nature both of a verb and of an adjec- 
tive. 

Explanation. — "A man deserving blame, should be censured 
accordingly. " Here " deserving" is a form of the verb "deserve." 
It expresses the same fact as the verb, only the assertion is under 
a sort of limitation, or in a state of suspense, as if we were to say, 
"If he deserves blame," or "Since he deserves blame." This 
form of the verb is capable also of denoting time, as verbs do. 
"Deserving blame" means doing it now. " Having deserved 
blame" means having done it in some past time. It expresses 



ETYMOLOGY. 57 

action also, as verbs generally do. It partakes therefore of the 
nature of a verb. 

But suppose we say, "A man not meritorious in his conduct, 
should be censured." "Meritorious" is an adjective, belonging 
to " man," or qualifying " man." In the same way, " deserving" 
belongs to or qualifies man. It partakes therefore of the nature 
of an adjective. 

172. The Participles are three, the Present, the 
Perfect, and the Compound Perfect. 

173. The Present Participle denotes that which is 
now in progress ; as, going, being, living, working, 
&c. The Present participles all end in ing. 

174. The Perfect Participle denotes that which is 
complete or finished; as, written, stolen, learned.* 

175. The Compound Perfect Participle denotes 
that which is finished before something else mentioned; 
as, having written, having stolen, having learned. 

176. The Compound Perfect Participle is formed 
by placing having before the Perfect participle. 

DUMBER AND PERSON. 

177. Verbs have Number and Person, as nouns and 
pronouns have. 

178. Verbs have two numbers, SINGULAR and 
Plural; and three persons, First, Second, and 
Third. 

Classes of Verbs. 

179. Verbs are divided into the folloiving classes: 
Transitive and Intransitive ; Kegular and 
Irregular ; Impersonal, Defective, and Auxil- 
iary. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

180. A Transitive Verb is one which requires 
an objective case after it ; as, James writes a letter. 

181. An Intransitive Verb is one which does not 
require an objective case after it ; as, John sleeps. 

Explanation. — When we put "what" after a verb and ask a 
question, if we can answer it by using some noun, it shows that 
the verb is transitive. Example: "Mary broke a tumbler and 
cried bitterly." Broke what ? Ans. A tumbler. The verb 
"broke" is transitive. But, if we put "what" after the other 
verb, and ask : Cried what ? we could not answer such a question. 
The verb "cried" therefore is intransitive. 

Exercise. — "Which of the following verbs are tran- 
sitive, and which are intransitive ? Hurt, lift, walk, 
sit, believe, forget, say, rise, raise, fly, go, depart. 

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 

182. A Eegular Yerb is one that forms its Past 
Tense and Perfect Participle by the addition of d or ed 
to its present tense ; as, Present, love ; Past, loved ; 
Perfect Participle, loved. 

183. An Irregular Yerb is one that does not 
form its Past Tense and Perfect Participle by the 
addition o/ d or ed to its present tense ; as, Present. 
teach ; Past, taught ; Perfect Participle, taught. 

EXAMPLES OF REGULAR VERBS. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. 

live lived lived 

instruct instructed instructed 

portray portrayed portrayed. 





ETYMOLOGY. 


I 




LIST OF IRREGULAR 


VERBS. 


1. 


Verbs having both a regular and i 


an irregular form. 


Present Tense. Past Tense. 


Perfect Participle. 


Awake 


awaked or awoke 


awaked 


Bereave 


bereaved or bereft 


bereaved or bereft 


Catch 


catched or caught 


catched or caught 


Clothe 


clothed 


clothed or clad 


Crow 


crowed or crew 


crowed 


Deal 


dealed or dealt 


dealed or dealt 


Dig 


digged or dug 


digged or dug 


Dwell 


dwelled or dwelt 


dwelled or dwelt 


Gild 


gilded or gilt 


gilded or gilt 


Gird 


girded or girt 


girded or girt 


Grave 


graved 


graved or graven 


Hang 


hanged or hung 


hanged or hung 


Hew 


hewed 


hewed or hewn 


Knit 


knitted or knit 


knitted or knit 


Load 


loaded 


loaded or laden 


Mow 


mowed 


mowed or mown 


Saw 


sawed 


sawed or sawn 


Shape 


shaped 


shaped or shapen 


Shave 


shaved 


shaved or shaven 


Shin 


shined or shone • 


shined or shone 


Slit 


slitted or slit 


slitted or slit 


Sow 


sowed 


sowed or sown 


Spill 


spilled or spilt 


spilled or spilt 


j Strew 
1 Strow 


strewed 


strewed 


strowed 


strowed or strown 


Sweat 


sweated or sweat 


sweated or sweat 


Swell 


swelled 


swelled or swollen 


Wax 


waxed 


waxed or waxen 


Work 


worked or wrought 


worked or wrought 




2. Verbs having all three parts alike. 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Cut 


cut 


cut 



59 



60 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Perfect Participle. 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Let 


let 


let 


Put 


put 


put 


Read 


read 


read 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Split 


split 


split 


Spread 


spread 


spread 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust. 


3. Verbs having the Past tense and the 


Perfect Participle alike. 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Bend 


bent 


bent 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Build 


built 


built 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Have 


had 


had 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Hold 


held 


held 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Lead 


led 


led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 





ETYMOLOGY. 




Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Perfect Participle. 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Meet 


met 


met 


Pay 


paid 


paid 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Say 


said 


said 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Shrink 


shrunk 


shrunk 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Sling 


slung 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spend 


spent 


spent 


Spin 


spun 


spun 


Stand 


stood 


stood 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


String 


strung 


strung 


Swing 


swung 


swung 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think 


thought 


thought • 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound 


wound 


Wring 


wrung 


wrung. 


4. 


Verbs having all three parts unlike. 


Am 


was 


been 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 



61 



62 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Perfect Participle. 


Come 


came 


come 


Do 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Give 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


laden 


Rise 


rose 


risen 


Rive 


rived 


riven 


Run 


ran 


run 


See 


saw 


seen 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shear 


sheared 


shorn 


Show 


showed 


shown 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Slide 


slid 


slidden 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Speak 


spoke 


spoken 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Swear 


swore 


sworn 


Take 


took 


taken 


Tear 


tore 


torn 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Tread 


trod 


trodden 


"Wear 


wore 


worn 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Write 


wrote 


written. 


5. 


Verbs having two forms 


of the Past tense. 


Eat 


eat or ate 


eaten 


Ring 


rung or rang 


rung 



ETYMOLOGY. 



63 



Present Tense. 
Sing 
Sink 
Spit 
Spring 
Stink 
Swim 
Thrive 



Past Tense, 
sung or sang 
sunk or sank 
spit or spat 
sprung or sprang 
stunk or stank 
swum or swam 
thrived or throve 



Perfect Participle, 
sung 
sunk 
spit 
sprung 
stunk 
swum 
thriven. 



6. Verbs having two forms of the Perfect Participle. 

Beat beat beat or beaten 

Bite bit bit or bitten 

Chide chid chid or chidden 

Forget forgot forgot or forgotten 

Get got got or gotten 

Hide hid hid or hidden 

Ride rode rode or ridden 

Strike struck struck or stricken. 

7. Verbs having two forms both of the Past tense and Perfect Participle. 

Bid bid or bade bid or bidden 

Stride strode or strid stridden or strid. 



8. Verbs having different meanings. 

{Bear (to bring forth) bare born 

Bear (to carry) bore borne 

j Cleave (to split) cleft or clove cleft or cloven 

I Cleave (to stick to) cleaved cleaved 

{Dare (to venture) durst dared 

Dare (to challenge) dared dared 

{Flee (to hasten away) fled fled 

Fly (tomoveasabird)fiew flown 

j Lay (to place) laid laid 

\ Lie (to lie down) lay lain 

r Set (to place) set set 

I Sit (to occupy a seat) sat sat. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

184. An Impersonal V$rb is one which is never 
used except with the pronoun it for its subject; as, 
" It snows" 

Note. — We never say, " I snow," " Thou snowest," " He 
snows," &c. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

185. A Defective Verb is one that is not used in 
all the Moods and Tenses ; as, must, ought, dec. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

186. An Auxiliary Yerb is one which helps to 
form the Moods and Tenses of other verbs. 

187. The auxiliary verbs are, Shall, May, Can, 
and Must, and sometimes Be, Do, Have, and Will. 

Note. — These are called Auxiliary, or helping verbs, because 
by their help the other verbs form most of their moods and 
tenses. 

conjugation. 

188. The Conjugation of a verb is the regular 
arrangement of its voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and 
persons. 

189. Conjugation of the verb To Be. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am. 1. We are. 

2. Thou art. 2. You are. 

3. He is. 3. They are. 



ETYMOLOGY. 05 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was 1. We were. 

2. Thou wast. 2. You were. 

3. He was. 3. They were. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. • Plural. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense, 
lingular. Plural. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I will be. 1. We will be. 

2. Thou wilt be. 2. You will be. 

3. He will be. % 3. They will be. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I will have been. 1. We will have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. You will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

Note. — In the third person, the word before the verb may be 
any of the personal pronouns, he, she, or it, any of the relative 
pronouns, who, which, ivhat, that, &c, or any noun. For conve- 
nience of learning, only one word is inserted. 

In the Perfect tense, third person singular, the verb has two 
forms, has or hath. 

In the Future tenses, the verb has two forms, shall or will. 
Shall has shalt in the second person singular, but is elsewhere 
unchanged. In the first person, shall expresses simple futurity ; 
will expresses a promise, or a determination. In the second and 
third persons, wilt and will express simple futurity ; shalt and 
shall express an obligation, or a command. 

Exercise. — Conjugate the verb "to be" through 
the Indicative mood, using she" instead of "he." 
6* E 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 

Conjugate it, using "it." 

Conjugate it, using "the man" for "he," and 
"the men' 7 for "they." 

Conjugate it in the First and Second Future 
tenses, using "shall" instead of "will." 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Note. — The Subjunctive Mood of the verb To be has two forms, 
both in the Present and Past tenses. The first is called the 
Regular form, and the other the Subjunctive form. 

Present Tense — Regular form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I am. 1. If we are. 

2. If thou art. 2. If you are. 

3. If he is 3. If they are. 

Present Tense — Subjunctive form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

Past Tense — Regular form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I was. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wast. 2. If you were. 

3. If he was. 3. If they were. 

Past Tense — Subjunctive form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert. 2. If you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been. 1. If we have been. 

2. If thou hast been. 2. If you have been. 

3. If he has been. 3. If they have been. 



ETYMOLOGY. 67 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been. 1. If we had been. 

2. If thou hadst been. 2. If you had been. 

3. If he had been. 3. If they had been. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I will be. 1. If we will be. 

2 If thou wilt be. 2. If you will be. 

3. If he will be. 3. If they will be. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I will have been. 1. If we will have been. 

2. If thou wilt have been. 2. If you will have been. 

3. If he will have been. 3. If they will have been. 

Note. — In conjugating the Subjunctive mood, the conjunction 
before the verb may be if, though, although, unless, except, whether, 
or lest. (See Art. 151.) For convenience in learning, only one 
conjunction is used. 

Exercise. — Conjugate the verb "to be" through 
the Subjunctive mood, using " though" instead of 
"if." 

Conjugate it in like manner, using each of the 
other conjunctions named. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I may be. 
Thou mayst be. 
He may be. 


Present Tense 

1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural. 
. We may be. 
You may be. 
They may be. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I might be. 
Thou mightst be. 
He might be. 


Past Tense. 

1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural. 
We might be. 
You might be. 
They might be. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have beeD. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. . 3. They might have been. 

Note. — In the Potential mood the auxiliary may be, 

In the Present tense, may, can, or must. 

In the Past tense, might, could, would, or should. 

In the Perfect tense, may have, can have, or must have. 

In the Pluperfect tense, might have, could have, would have, or 
should have. 

Must is unchanged in conjugation. The other auxiliaries, can, 
could, would, should, form the second person singular by adding 
st, thus, canst, couldst, wouldst, shouldst ; but elsewhere they are 
unchanged. 

Exercise. — Conjugate the verb in the Present 
tense, using "can" instead of "may." 

Conjugate it, using "must." 

Conjugate it in the Past tense, using "could;" 
using "would;" using "should." 

Conjugate . it in the Perfect tense, using " can 
have;" using "must have." 

Conjugate it in the Pluperfect tense, using "could 
have;" using "would have;" using "should have." 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense* 

Singular. Plural 

1. Be, or be thou. 1. Be, cr be you- 



ETYMOLOGY. 



69 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being. Past. Been. 

Perfect. Having been. 



190. Conjugation of the verb To LOVE. 
ACTIVE VOICE. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Singular. 

1. I love. 

2. Thou lovest. 

3. He loves. 



Plural. 
We love. 
You love. 
They love. 



Singular. 
I loved 
Thou lovedst. 
He loved. 

Singular. 
I have loved. 
Thou hast loved, 



3. He has loved. 



Singular. 
I had loved. 
Thou hadst loved. 
He had loved. 



Present Tense. 

1 

2. 
3. 

Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We loved. 

2. You loved. 

3. They loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We have loved. 

2. You have loved. 

3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 



Plural. 

1. We had loved. 

2. You had loved. 

3. They had loved. 



First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I will love. 1. We will love. 

Thou wilt love 2. You will love. 

He will love. 3. They will love. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I will have loved. 1. We will have loved. 

Thou wilt have loved. 2. You will have loved. 

He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Note. — In the Active voice, the Subjunctive Mood has two 
forms in the Present tense only, namely, the Regular form, and 
the Subjunctive form. 

Present Tense — Regular form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou lovest. 2. If you love. 

3. If he loves. S. If they love 

Present Tense — Subjunctive form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou love. 2. If you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. . 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I loved. 1. If we loved. 

2. If thou lovedst. 2. If you loved. 

3. If he loved. 3. If they loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have loved. 1. If we have loved. 

2. If thou hast loved. 2. If you have loved 

3. If he has loved. 3. If they have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had loved. 1. If we had loved. 

2. If thou hadst loved. 2. If you had loved. 

3. If he had loved. 3. If they had loved. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I will love. 1. If we will love. 

2. If thou wilt love. 2. If you will love. 

3. If he will love. 3. If they will love. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I will have loved. 1. If we will have loved. 

2. If thou wilt have loved. 2. If you will have loved. 

3. If he will have loved. 3. If they will have loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. I may love. 1. We may love. 

2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love. 

3. He may love. 3. They may love. 

Past Tense. 

I Singular. Plural. 

1. I might love. 1. We might love. 

2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 

3. He might love. 3. They might love. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

Love, or love thou. Love, or love you. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present To love. Perfect. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved. 

Compound Perfect. Having loved. 






72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Note. — The Passive Voice of a verb is formed 
by placing before its Perfect Participle the various 
moods, tenses, numbers, and persons of the verb 
To he. 

Intransitive Verbs have no Passive Voice. 

indicative mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plura*. 

1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved. 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved. 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I will be loved. 1. We will be loved. 

2. Thou wilt be loved. 2. You will be loved. 

3. He will be loved. 3. They will be loved. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I will have been loved. 1. We will have been loved. 

2. Thou wilt have been loved. 2. You will have been loved. 

3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Note. — In the Passive voice, the Subjunctive Mood has two 
forms, both for the Present tense and the Past. 

Present Tense — Regular form. 

Singular. f Plural. 

1. If I am loved. 1. If we are loved. 

2. If thou art loved. 2. If you are loved. 

3. If he is loved. 3. If they are loved. 

Present Tense — Subjunctive form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved 

Past Tense — Regular form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I was loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou wast loved. 2. If you were loved. 

3. If he was loved. 3. If they were loved. 

Past Tense- — Subjunctive form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou wert loved. 2. If you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been loved. 1. If we have been loved. 

2. If thou hast been loved. 2. If you have been loved. 

3. If he has been loved. 3. If they have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been loved. 1. If we had been loved. 

2. If thou hadst been loved. 2. If you had been loved. 

3. If he had been loved. 3. If they had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I will be loved. 1. If we will be loved. 

2. If thou wilt be loved. 2. If you will be loved. 

3. If he will be loved. 3. If they will be loved. 

7 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I will have been loved. 1. If we will have been loved. 

2. If thou wilt have been loved. 2. If you will have been loved. 

3. If he will have been loved. 3. If they will have been loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. 

2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You may be loved. 

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 

2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 

3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved^* 

2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 

2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 

3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
2. Be loved, or be thou loved. 2. Be loved, or be you loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To be loved. Perfect. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being loved. Perfect. Loved. 

Compound Perfect. Having been loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



75 



EXERCISES IN CONJUGATION. 



Conjugate the verb 



Come, in the Active vo: 



ce, Indicative mood, Present 



tense. 



Leave, ' 


4 Passive ' 


* Subjunctive 


(i 


Past 


Do, * 


* Active * 


' Potential 


M 


Perfect 


Burst, * 


* Passive * 


1 Infinitive 


it 


Perfect 


Go, < 


6 Active ' 


' Imperative 


tt 




Sell, < 


' Passive ' 


' Indicative 


tl 


Pluperfect 


Blow, * 


' Active ' 


1 Subjunctive 


it 


First Future 


Rain, * 


' Active ' 


1 Indicative 


it 


<( a 


Lye, * 


* Passive * 


1 Subjunctive 


il 


Second Future 


Die, ' 


* Active ' 


1 Indicative 


it 


a a 


Set, * 


' Passive ' 


* Infinitive 


a 


Present 


Sit, ■ 


1 Active * 


* n 


a 


Perfect 


Lie, ' 


* Active * 


1 Indicative 


it 


Perfect 


Lay, * 


1 Passive ' 


c Subjunctive 


a 


Past 


Be, « 




Potential 


it 


Pluperfect 


Eat, ■ 


1 Passive ' 


i a 


tt 


it 


Fly, 


1 Active ■ 


6 Indicative 


tt 


Past 


Flee, ■ 


1 Active ' 


* Subjunctive 


a 


Perfect 


Know, * 


1 Passive * 


1 Indicative 


it 


First Future 


£Aoe, 


' Active * 


■ Subjunctive 


tt 


Second Future 


£Z«y, < 


1 Passive ' 


' Imperative 


a 





Name all the Participles of the verb come. 
Name in like manner all the Participles of each 
of the other verbs in the foregoing list. 

Note. — If the verb is Transitive, remember to name the Parti- 
ciples in the Passive Voice, as well as in the Active. 



THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

191. The Progressive Form of a verb is that which 
represents the action as in progress, or as incomplete. 

192. The Progressive form of any verb is made by 
placing before its Present Participle the various moods, 
tenses, numbers, and persons of the verb to be. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Example. — The Past tense of the Indicative 
Mood of the verb to be is — 

I was. We were. 

Thou wast. You were. 

He was. They were. 

By placing the above before the Present Participle 
of the verb to sing, which is singing, we have, 
I was singing, 
Thou wast singing, &c. 
This is the Past tense, Indicative mood, Progress 
sive form, of the verb to sing. 

Exercises in the Progressive form. 

Conjugate the verb "sing" through all the tenses 
of the Indicative mood, in the Progressive form. 

Conjugate "know" through the Subjunctive mood, 
Progressive form. 

Conjugate "write" through the Potential mood, 
Progressive form. 

Conjugate "stand" through the Imperative and 
Infinitive moods, Progressive form. 

Remark. — A verb in the Progressive form is always in the 
Active voice. 

EMPHATIC FORM. 

93. The Emphatic Form of a verb is that in 
which the assertion is expressed with emphasis. 

194. The Emphatic Form is used only in the Present 
and Past tenses of the Indicative and the Subjunctive 
moods, Active voice, and in the Imperative mood, both 
Active and Passive. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



77 



195. The Emphatic Form of a verb is made by 
placing before it the verb do as an auxiliary. 



196. Conjugation of the verb To LOVE, in the Em- 
phatic Form. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



1. 


Singular. 
I do love. 


Present Tense. 

Plural. 
1. We do love. 


2. 


Thou dost love. 




2. You do love. 


3. 


He does love. 




3. They do love. 


1. 


Singular. 
I did love. 


Past Tense. 

Plural. 
1. We did love. 


2, 


Thou didst love. 




2. You did love. 


3. 


He did love. 




3. They did love. 




SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 




Present Tense- 


— Regular form. 


1. 


Singular. 
If I do love. 




Plural. 
1. If we do love. 


2. 


If thou dost love. 




2. If you do love. 


3. 


If he does love. 




3. If they do love. 




Present Tense- 


■ Subjunctive form. 


1. 


Singular. 
If I do love 




Plural. 
1. If we do love. 


2. 


If thou do love. 




2. If you do love. 


3. 


If he do love. 




3. If they do love. 


1. 


Singular. 
If I did love. 


Past Tense. 

Plural. 
1 . If we did love. 


2. 


If thou didst love. 




2. If you did love. 


3. 


If he did love. 
7* 




3. If they did love. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Active — Present Tense. 
Singular. Do (thou) love. Plural. Do (you) love. 

Passive — Present Tense. 
Singular. Do (thou) be loved. Plural. Do (you) be loved. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

Sentence. — " James writes a letter." Parse "writes." 
Model. — "Writes" (1.) is a verb, it contains an 
assertion; (2.) transitive, it requires an objective 
case after it ; (3.) irregular, it does not form its past 
tense and perfect participle by the addition of d or 
ed (Pres. write, Past, wrote, Perf. P. written) ; (4.) 
active voice, it denotes that the nominative "James" 
acts or does the thing mentioned; (5.) indicative 
mood, the assertion is expressed directly and with- 
out limitation ; (6.) present tense, it denotes present 
time; (7.) third person, singular number (I write, 
thou writest, he writes, or James writes). 

Abbreviated Model. — "Writes" is (1.) a verb, 
(2.) transitive, (3.) irregular (write, wrote, written), 
(4.) active, (5.) indicative, (6.) present, (7.) third per- 
son, singular. 

Parse all the Yerbs in the Exercise, pages 53, 54. 
Parse all the Verbs in the following sentences : 
I have not seen my Dictionary, mother ; do tell 
me where it is, if you know. I did not use it at 
home. I cannot learn my lesson without it. Some- 
body must have hid it to vex me. Ask the maid, 
perhaps she put it away. I will take care to-morrow 
to put it in the closet, before I go out to play. 



ETYMOLOGY. 79 

When the mail shall have arrived, I will send 
immediately for my letters ; and having read them ; 
I will send replies to them by the next mail. 

If he had been more attentive, he might have 
escaped the punishment, which, he thought, was so 
grievous to be borne. 

He had had sufficient time to study his lesson 
when he was called to breakfast. William appears 
to have studied his lesson, and to have had also 
time for exercise. 

Twinkle, twinkle, little star, 
How I wonder what you are ! 

Swear not ! Has God not forbidden you to take 
his name in vain? How do you expect him to hold 
you guiltless if you take his name in vain ? 

Thou, Lord, canst save me, if thou wilt deign 
to do so. 

Dost thou do thy duty in school, when thou goest 
there to amuse thyself? Thou shouldst remember 
that the school is a place for learning lessons of 
usefulness. Mayst thou not have to repent of this 
neglect of opportunity ? 

If it was raining while you were walking to the 
city, you should have carried your umbrella, or you 
should have waited under some shelter until the 
rain had ceased. Be more prudent, or you may 
impair your health, for it must be a strong consti- 
tution, that will stand such exposure. 

Having been informed that the enemy was ap- 
proaching, and being without arms, the general 
ordered his men to prepare to retreat to a place 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

concealed from the enemy's view, lest the enemy, 
seeing their defenceless condition, should make an 
easy conquest. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse all the Nouns in the 
foregoing sentences. 

Parse all the Adjectives. 

Parse all the Pronouns. 

ADVEEBS. 

197. An Adverb is a word used to qualify a Verb, 
Adjective, or other Adverb ; as, he writes rapidly. 

Example. — Come here instantly and answer me 
more respectfully, or you will receive a very severe 
correction. 

"Here" qualifies the verb "come," it tells where 
you are to come. 

"Instantly" also qualifies "come," it tells when 
you are to come. 

"Eespectfully" qualifies the verb "answer," it 
tells in what manner you are to answer. 

"Very" qualifies the adverb "respectfully," it 
tells how respectfully you are to answer 

"Very" qualifies the adjective "severe," it tells 
how severe the punishment will be. 

Comparison of Adverbs. 

198. Many Adverbs are compared, as Adjectives are. 

199. Some Adverbs are compared by adding er and 
est to the Positive ; as, soon, sooner, soonest. 

200. Adverbs ending in ly are compared by prefix- 



ETYMOLOGY. 81 

ing more and most, less and least ; as, happily, more 
happily, most happily ; less happily, least happily. 
201. Thefo llowing are co mpared irregu lar ly : 

Irregular Comparison. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Well 


better 


best 


111 


worse 


worst 


Badly 


worse 


worst 


Much. 


more 


most 


Far 


farther 


farthest. 



202. The following words are used sometimes as 
adverbs, and sometimes as adjectives; viz., little, less, 
least, better, best, much, more, most, no, only, ill. 
If any of these words qualifies a noun, it is an adjec- 
tive; but, if it qualifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb, 
then it is an adverb. 

Examples. — "It troubles him much to have so 
much money.'"' The first "much" is an adverb, 
qualifying the verb "troubles." The second "much" 
is an adjective, qualifying the noun "money." 

" I have no money, and I can support you r^o 
longer." The first "no" is an adjective, qualifying 
"money." The second "no" is an adverb, qualify- 
ing the adverb "longer." 

" He could not behave worse, nor deserve a worse 
punishment." Tftie first "worse" is an adverb, 
qualifying the verb "behave." The second "worse" 
is an adjective, qualifying the noun "punishment." 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Glasses of Adverbs. 

203. Adverbs are divided into classes, according 
to their signification. 

204. The most important of these classes are 

1. Adverbs of Manner or Quality ; as, well, 
ill, swiftly, smoothly, truly, with a great many 
others formed from adjectives by adding the termi- 
nation ly. This is by far the most numerous class 
of adverbs. 

2. Adverbs of Place; as, here, there, where, 
hither, thither, whither, hence, thence, whence, some- 
where, nowhere, &c. 

3. Adverbs of Time ; as, now, then, when, ever, 
never, soon, often, seldom, yesterday, to-day, to- 
morrow, lately, &c. 

4. Adverbs of Quantity ; as, much, little, suffi- 
ciently, enough, scarcely, &c. 

5. Adverbs of Direction ; as, downward, up- 
ward, forward, backward, homeward, heavenward, 
hitherward, thitherward, &c. 

6. Adverbs of Number, Order, &c. (including 
all those formed from the Numeral Adjectives) ; as, 
first, secondty, thirdly, &c. ; once, twice, thrice, &c. ; 
singly, doubly, triply, &c. 

7. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation; as, 
yes, no, verily, indeed, nay, nowise, doubtless, &c. 

8. Adverbs of Interrogation; as, how, why, 
when, where, whither, whence, &c. 

9. Adverbs of Comparison; as, more, most, 
less, least, better, best, very, exceedingly, nearly, 
almost, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 

10. Adverbs of Uncertainty; as, perchance, 
perhaps, peradventure. 

Note. — The above is not intended as a complete list of Adverbs, 
nor even a complete classification of them. It will be found 
serviceable, however, for the learner in this way. When in doubt 
about the true character of a word, whether to call it an Adverb 
or not, the doubt is often immediately resolved by attempting to 
refer the word to one of these classes. Does the word express 
place ? Does it signify time ? &c. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

Sentence. — " John wrote the letter hastily. 11 
Model. — " Hastily" (1.) is an adverb, it qualifies 
the verb "wrote;" (2.) it is an adverb of manner, it 
tells the manner in which he wrote ; (3.) it is com- 
pared, hastily, more hastily, most hastily. 

Note. — When the adverb does not admit of comparison, the 
third thing to say of it will be, "not compared." 

Parse all the Adverbs in the following sentences : 
Cherish me kindly, cheer my young heart, 
I will follow thee ever and never depart. 

Thus the farmer sows his seed. 

The lady sang so very sweetly that she was 
greatly applauded. 

Eemember now thy Creator in the days of thy 
youth. 

Two equally intelligent children may not equally 
improve. 

An exceedingly troublesome child will trouble 
his parents exceedingly. 

Great men are greatly admired. 

He staid long with me, and promised a still longer 
visit. * 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Write more carefully, John; you are the least 
careful writer in the class. 

The children will recite first the first paragraph 
on the first page. 

The farmer homeward turned his weary iteps, 
and cast his eyes upward to gaze upon the sky, 
while he thought cheerfully of those at home. 

How can you behave so badly ? 

Why do you neglect your duty ? 

Review Exercise. — Parse all the Nouns in the 
foregoing sentences. 

Parse all the Pronouns. 

Parse all the Adjectives. 

Parse all the Yerbs. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

205. A Conjunction is a word used to connect 
words and sentences ; as, John and James study ; John 
writes and James reads. 

206. The following are the principal Conjunctions: 
and, as, also, because, both, for, if, since, that, then, 
therefore, wherefore, or, nor, either, neither, but, 
yet, than, lest, though, although, unless, whether, &c. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

First Model. — " John and James are brothers." 
"And" is a conjunction, it connects the noun "John" 
with the noun "James." 

Note. — When conjunctions connect words, those words will be 
the same parts of speech, that is a verb and a verb, an adjective 
and an adjective, &c, except that nouns and pronouns^may be 
connected by a conjunction. 



ETYMOLOGY. 85 

Second Model. — " John studies his lesson care- 
fully, but James is very negligent of his lesson." 
"But" is a conjunction, it connects the sentence 
"John studies his lesson carefully," with the sentence 
"James is very negligent of his lesson." 

Parse each of the Conjunctions in the following 
sentences : 

If a stubborn or disobedient child is corrected, he 
may be taught to obey willingly and cheerfully. 

William, take your sister to school, and do not 
let me hear that either she or you have loitered on 
the way. 

The teacher was a strict, though kind man. 
Although he would not allow neglect or disorder, 
yet he had a kind or gentle word for all who de- 
served it. 

Exercise. — -Connect the following sentences by 
such conjunctions as will make the two sentences 
one. 

I will not go to school, the weather is so bad. 

Mother gave me a handsome present, I was 

promoted to the Grammar School. 

The boy wrote well, his hands were badly 

injured. 

We will be punished hereafter, we disobey 

God's will here. 

He was but a child, he supported his mother. 

Note. — Such sentences are called compound sentences. 
8 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PKEPOSITIONS. 

207. A Preposition is a word placed before a 
noun to show its relation to some other word; as f I write 
with, a pen. 

208. Simple Prepositions are those which are not 
compounded with any other word 

209. The Simple Prepositions generally assist in 
determining the place or position of a person or thing. 

Example. — "John went on the roof, and found 
his ball in the gutter." "On" shows the place of 
"John," and "in" the place where the ball was 
found. 

210. The Simple Prepositions are nineteen ; viz., 
at, after, by, down, for, from, in, of, on, over, past, 
round, since, through, till, to, under, up, with. 

211. Compound Prepositions are those which are 
formed by uniting two words or parts of words. 

212. The Compound Prepositions are 

Above, about, across, against, along, amid or 
amidst, among or amongst, around, athwart. 

Before, behind, below, beneath, beside or besides, 
between or betwixt, beyond ; 

Upon, toward, towards, unto, into, within, with- 
out, throughout, underneath. 

213. The following words are sometimes- used 
like Prepositions: bating, concerning, during, ex- 
cept, excepting, regarding, respecting, touching. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

Model. — "John walks on the roof." "On" is a 
preposition, it is placed before the noun "roof;" 



ETYMOLOGY. 87 

and it shows a relation between "roof" and "walks," 
it tells on what he walks. 

Parse each of the Prepositions in the following 
sentences : 

He went in. a carriage, with two horses, on a fine 
day in the morning into the city after his sister. 
As he rode over the roads and through the streets, 
he saw objects before him with which he was greatly 
pleased. 

When the widow stood beside the grave of her 
husband, she thought over his many acts of kind- 
ness towards her. Now he was to rest beneath the 
clods of the valley, and she was to be left without 
a partner. The good minister told her to look for 
comfort in her affliction unto her heavenly Father, 
and to think of that blissful abode above the weary 
world, and of that better life beyond the grave. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse each of the Nouns in 
the foregoing sentences. 

Parse each of the Pronouns. 

Parse each of the Adjectives. 

Parse each of the Verbs. 

Parse each of the Adverbs. 

Parse each of the Conjunctions. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

214. An Interjection is a ivord used in making 
sudden exclamations ; as, oh ! ah ! 

Note. — An Interjection is always followed by this mark (!) 
called a note of exclamation. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

215. The principal Interjections are, adieu, ah, 
alas, alack, aha, begone, hark, ho, ha, hail, halloo, 
hum, hush, hist, huzza, lo, O, oh, pshaw, see, &c. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

In parsing an Interjection, simply state that it is 
an Interjection. 

GENERAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Parse all the words in the following sentences : 

" Can you lend me a thousand dollars, I wish to 
establish myself in a small retail business?" inquired 
a young man, who was not yet twenty years of age, 
of a middle-aged gentleman who was writing in a 
large book before him, in one of the largest estab- 
lishments in Boston. The person addressed turned 
towards the speaker, and regarding him for a moment 
with a look of surprise, asked, "What security can 
you give?" 

"Oh!" exclaimed the child, when he was struck. 
"Ha! ha!" replied his sister, it serves you right. 
"Fie!" said their mother, this is not the proper 
spirit. 

The talents of children may often be discovered 
by the way in which they amuse themselves. 

Jesus, while suffering excruciating torture, ex- 
claimed, " Father, forgive them, for they know not 
what they do." 

Washington was elected the first President. He 
has been styled, "First in war, first in peace, first 
in the hearts of his countrymen." 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 

WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 

That is a Relative Pronoun, when who, whom, or which may be 

used in its place. Ex. He is the wisest man that lives in 

our village. 
That is a Demonstrative Adjective Pronoun, when the may be 

used instead of it. Ex. "That house which I see," means 

" the house which I see." 
That is a Conjunction in all other cases. Ex. He wears warm 

clothes that he may not catch cold. Here, who, whom, which, 

or the, could not be used for that 
But is a Preposition, when it means except. Ex. He lost all his 

books but (except) his dictionary. 
But is an Adverb, when it means only. Ex. I but (only) touched 

him and he cried. 
But is a Conjunction in all other instances. 
Either is a Distributive Adjective Pronoun, when it means one of 

the two. Ex. Either of the boys may do it. 
Either is a Conjunction in all other cases. 
Neither is a Distributive Adjective Pronoun, when it means not 

one of the two. 
Neither is a Conjunction in all other cases. 
Both is an Adjective, when it means the two. Ex. Both shoes 

need mending. 
Both is a Conjunction in all other cases. Ex. I both love and 

respect him. 
For is a Conjunction, when it means because, and is used in giving 

a reason. Ex. I obey him, for he is my father. The reason 

for the obedience is, He is my father. 
For is a Preposition in all other cases. 
As, meaning because, or since, is a Conjunction. Ex. As the wind 

was favorable, we set sail. 
As, in all other cases, is an Adverb. 
While, meaning to pass or spend (time), is a Verb. Ex. They 

managed to while away the hour very pleasantly. 
While, meaning a portion of time, is a Noun. Ex. Let us sing a 

while. 
While, meaning during the time that, is an Adverb. Ex. The act 

was done while I was absent. 

8* 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Before, After, Till, and Until, when followed by a noun or 
pronoun in the objective case, are Prepositions. Ex. : 
Come before dinner. 
Come after dinner. 
Wait till midnight. 
Wait until your turn. 
Before, After, Till, and Until, when not followed by a noun 
or pronoun in the objective case, are Adverbs. Ex. : 
Come before I have dined. 
Come after I have dined. 
Wait till I have dined. 
Wait until I have dined. 
What is a Compound Relative, when that which or those which can 
be used in its stead. Ex. Eat what is set before you. That 
is, Eat that which is set before you. 
What is an Interrogative Pronoun, when used to ask a question. 

Ex. What do you see ? 
What is an Adjective Pronoun, when joined with a noun, and 

meaning how great. Ex. What wonders he performed. 
What is an Adjective Pronoun and a Relative at the same time, 
when joined to a noun, and equivalent to that which or 
those which. Ex. He gave what money he had to the poor. 
That is, he gave that money which he had. 
What, when uttered as a mere exclamation, and to denote sur- 
prise, is an Interjection. Ex. What! abuse your mother! 
Then, meaning in that case, or therefore, is a Conjunction. Ex. If 

all this be so, then I am right. 
Then, in all other instances, is an Adverb. 
Since, meaning for the reason that, is a Conjunction. Ex. S-nce it 

is your wish, I will certainly do it. 
Since, when placed before a noun denoting a period of time, is a 

Preposition. Ex. I have had no food since Monday. 
Since, in other cases, is an Adverb. 
Yet, meaning nevertheless, notwithstanding, is a Conjunction. Ex. 

Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
Yet, meaning up to a certain time, or over and above, is an Adverb. 
Ex. Has the boy come yet 9 
I will give you yet one more reason. 



THIRD PART. 



SYNTAX. 

216. The third part of Grammar is called SYNTAX. 

217. Syntax treats of Sentences. 

218. A Sentence is a number of words making a 
complete sense ; as, Man is mortal. 

219. Two or more words rightly put together, and 
not making a complete sense, are called a Phrase. 

220. The principal parts of a sentence are the SUB- 
JECT (or nominative), the ATTRIBUTE (or verb), and the 
Object. 

Thus, in the sentence, " John studies his lesson," 
"John" is the subject, or thing of which the affirma- 
tion is made, "studies" is the attribute, or thing 
affirmed, and "lessons" is the object. 

221. A Simple sentence is one which contains but 
one subject and one finite verb ; as, Life is short. 

Note. — A finite verb is a verb not in the Infinitive mood. 

Explanation. — In the sentence, " Horses and dogs are useful 
animals," although there is but one verb, there are two subjects 
or nominatives. The sentence therefore is not simple. It may- 
be resolved into two sentences, " Horses are useful animals," 
"Dogs are useful animals." 

In the sentence, "Horses can walk or run," although there is 
but one nominative, there are two finite verbs. The sentence 
therefore is not simple. It can be resolved into two sentences, 
" Horses can walk," " Horses can run." 

(91) 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The sentence, " The horse has been trained to run," has two 
verbs, but one of them is in the Infinitive mood. It is therefore 
simple. It cannot be resolved into two sentences. 

222. A Compound sentence contains two or more 
simple sentences, connected by one or more conjunctions ; 
as, Life is short, but art is long. 

KULE I. 
The subject of the Verb is Nominative to it. 

Explanation. — The subject of the verb is that of which the 
assertion is made. "The book is in the desk." The subject of 
the assertion here is "book." It is that which is asserted to be 
in the desk. "John and I went home." Here there are two 
subjects, "John" and "I." It is they of whom we say that they 
"went home." Now, the subject of the verb, that of which 
anything is asserted, must be in the nominative case. It would 
be contrary to the Rule, therefore, to say, "John and me went 
home," because "me," one of the subjects, is not in the nomi- 
native case. 

Exercise in finding the Subject. — (See p. 33.) 
How may the subject of the verb be found? Find 
the subject in each of the sentences in the Exer- 
cises on p. 33. • 

Note. — In all the examples of Parsing which are hereafter to 
be given, to the end of the book, the models already given under 
the head of Etymological parsing will be followed, as far as they 
go, and then will be completed in each case by adding the rule of 
Syntax which properly belongs to it. 

Model for Parsing. — "James writes a letter." 
"James" is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, 
in the singular number, third person, and nomina- 
tive case, subject of the verb "writes," and aomina- 



SYNTAX. 93 

tive to it ; according to Eule I., which says, "The 
subject of the verb is nominative to it." 

Note 1. — This rule applies to Personal and Relative Pronouns, 
as well as to nouns. In parsing these pronouns, certain other 
things are to be said, which will be learned under Rule VII. The 
parsing in the following model is complete, as far as it can be 
given now. 

Model for Parsing. — "He will write a letter." 
"He" is a personal pronoun, 3d p., masc. g., sing. n. ; 
and nom. case, subject of the verb "will write," and 
nominative to it, according to Eule I. (Quote.) 

Note 2. — Complex names, such as George Washington, Charles 
Henry Grant, &c, are taken together in parsing, as if they were 
one word. Thus, we would say, "Charles Henry Grant" is a 
noun, &c. 

Exercises. — Point out and parse the subject of 
the Verb in each of the following sentences : 

God loves a cheerful giver. 

Has he not said it, and will he not do it ? 

Close attention to your studies while in school, 
will accelerate your progress. 

Christopher Columbus discovered North America. 

North America was discovered by Christopher 
Columbus. 

Napoleon, at the head of a large army, crossed 
the Alps. 

That kind of stockings is very dear. 

Observation 1. — Sometimes the subject of the 
verb is another verb in the infinitive mood taken as 
a noun. 

Explanation. — " To behave properly will gain for us a good 
name." Here, "To behave" is used in the sense of the noun 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" behaviour." It is the subject of the verb, just as "behaviour" 
would be, if the sentence were written, " Proper behaviour will 
gain for us a good name." 

Model for Parsing. — "To behave" is a verb 
in the infinitive mood, used as a noun, and is the 
subject of the verb " will gain," according to Ob- 
servation 1, Eule I. (Quote the Observation.) 

Note. — In parsing an Infinitive used as a noun, it is not neces- 
sary to parse the verb in full. If any, however, desire to do so, 
they can take the full model under Rule II. for the first part of 
the exercise, until they come to the mood. 

Exercises. — Point out and parse the subject of 
the Verb in .each of the following sentences : 

To steal will render us liable to punishment. 

To make mistakes is quite common among boys. 

To wash our hands before eating is required by 
the laws of decency. 

To despair in adversity is madness. 

Observation 2. — A noun or pronoun addressed, 
and not the subject of any verb, is in the Nomina- 
tive Case Independent. 

Explanation. — "Father, forgive me." Here, "father" is not 
the subject of the verb "forgive." The subject is "thou," or 
"you," understood. "Father" is addressed or spoken to, but 
is not the subject of the verb. It is in the nominative case inde- 
pendent. 

Model for Parsing. — " Father" is a com. noun, 
masc. g., sing, n., 2d p., and in the nominative case 
independent, according to Obs. 2, E. I. (Quote Obs.) 

Exercises. — Point out and parse the Noun ad- 
dressed in each of the following sentences : 

I am not mad, most noble Festus. 



SYNTAX. 95 

Arise, Peter, kill and eat. 

Welcome, little stranger. 

Sarah, be quiet. 

Fellow-citizens, listen to my cause. 

Teach me, O Lord, to serve thee aright. 

Observation 3. — A noun or a pronoun put before 
a participle as its subject, and not being the subject 
of any verb, is in the Nominative Case Absolute. 

Explanation. — " The sash falling suddenly, his finger was 
crushed." Here, "sash" is not the subject of the verb. It was 
the "finger," not the "sash," that was crushed. At the same 
time, "sash" is put before the participle "falling" as its subject. 
It is that which is expressed as "falling." The noun and the 
participle thus taken together, are equivalent to a nominative and 
a verb with a conjunction prefixed. It means "because the sash 
fell suddenly," or "when the sash fell suddenly," &c. A noun 
thus placed before a participle as its subject, and not being the 
subject of any verb, is in the Nominative Absolute. 

But suppose the sentence had been, "The sash, falling sud- 
denly, was broken." Here, "sash'-' is placed before "falling," 
as its subject, as in the former instance. But it is also the subject 
of the verb "was broken." It is therefore not in the Case Abso- 
lute. 

Model for Parsing.— " Sash" is a com. noun, 
n. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the nominative case 
absolute before the participle "falling," according 
to Obs. 3, E. I. (Quote Obs.) 

Exercises. — Point out and parse the Noun that 
is in the Nominative Case Absolute, in each of the 
following sentences : 

Supper being finished, they left the table. 

My father being weary, I relieved him. 

The teacher having been so long ill, his friends 
feared he would not recover. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The work done, every workman returned to his 
home, cheered by the prospect of rest. 

The lieutenant led the men, the captain having 
been disabled. 

Being engaged I shall be unable to attend to you, 
but nothing preventing, to-morrow being fair, I will 
be at your service. 

EULE II. 

A Verb agrees with its Nominative in Num- 
ber and Person. 

Explanation. — " Thou lovest reading.'' Here the verb "lovest" 
is second person, because its subject or nominative "thou" is 
second person. It would not be according to the Rule to say 
"Thou loves'''' (3d p.). "The days of man are but as grass." 
Here the verb "are" is plural, because its subject or nominative 
"days" is plural. It would not be according to the Rule to say 
"The days of man is but as grass." The verb must be in the 
same number and the same person as its nominative. 

Note. — A verb in the Infinitive mood has no subject or nomi- 
native. In the Imperative mood, the subject or nominative is 
generally omitted, thou, or you, being understood. 

Model for Parsing. — "James writes a letter." 
"Writes" is a transitive verb irregular (Pres. write, 
Past, wrote, Perf. P. written), active voice, indicative 
mood, present tense, third person, singular number, 
to agree with its nominative " James," according to 
Eule II., which says. "A verb agrees with its nomi- 
native in number and person." 

Exercises. — Parse the Verbs in the following 
sentences : 

Perseverance overcomes difficulties. 



SYNTAX. 97 

Difficulties may be overcome by perseverance. 

The beauty of his countenance was only excelled 
by the elegance of his manners. 

God said, Thou shalt not kill. 

Forgive your enemies. 

Bless them that persecute you. 

If the merchant's application to business had been 
greater, he would not have failed. 

Eeview Exercise. — Point out and parse all the 
Nouns and Pronouns in the foregoing sentences, 
that are in the nominative case. 

Observation 1. — When the subject or nomina- 
tive of the verb is not a noun, but an infinitive 
mood, or a part of a sentence, the verb should be 
singular. But if there are two or more infinitives, 
or clauses, making distinct subjects, then the verb 
should be plural. 

Model for Parsing. — "To play in the mud 
soils the clothes.' 3 " Soils" is a trans, verb, reg. f 
act. v., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., and in the sing, n., to 
agree with the verb " to play" in the infinitive mood 
used as a noun, according to Obs. 1, E. II. (Quote 
Obs.) 

Exercises. — Point out and parse all the Verbs in 
the following sentences, which have for their subject 
an infinitive mood, or a part of a sentence : 

To contradict persons older and wiser than our- 
selves, violates the rules of politeness. 

To be carnally minded is death. 

To live righteously, soberly, and godly, is required 
of all men. 

9 G 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To be temperate in diet, to use exercise in the 
open air, and to preserve the mind from tumultuous 
emotions, are the best preservatives of health. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse the Infinitives in the 
foregoing sentences. 

Observation 2. — A Collective noun requires the 
verb to be in the plural, whenever the idea is plural. 

Note. — The idea is plural when reference is made to the several 
objects which compose a thing, rather than to the thing itself in 
the mass. 

Explanation. — "The crowd is large." Here the idea is, not 
that the persons who compose the crowd are large, but that the 
mass or collection is large. "The class recite well." Here, we 
mean that the scholars, those who compose the class, recite well. 
In the first example, the idea of "crowd" is singular. In the 
second example, the idea of " class" is plural. We can put 
another noun in the plural number for it, and express the same 
meaning. 

Model for Parsing. — "The class recite well." 
"Recite" is an intrans. verb, reg. ; act. v., ind. m., 
pres. t., 3d p., and in the pi. n., to agree with its nomi- 
native " class," a collective noun, according to Obs. 1, 
E. II. (Quote Obs.) 

Exercises. — Parse each of the Verbs in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

The flock contained twenty sheep. 

Our family is large. 

The peasantry of some countries go without shoes 
even in winter. 

The congregation were supplied with hymn books. 

The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their 
chief good. 



SYNTAX. 99 

Keview Exercise. — Parse each of the Nomina- 
tives in the foregoing sentences. 

Observation 3. — Two or more nominatives con- 
nected by and, expressed or understood, require a 
verb in the plural. 

Model for Parsing. — " Socrates and Plato were 
wise." "Were" is an intrans. verb, irr., ind. m., 
past t., 3d p., and in the pi. n., because it has two 
nominatives, "Socrates" and "Plato," connected by 
"and," according to Obs. 3, E. II. (Quote Obs.) 

Exercises. — Parse each of the Verbs in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

A gunner and his dog were seen near the tree. 

The father and the daughter have been placed in 
the same grave. 

Health and beauty soon pass away. 

Famine, pestilence, and death in various forms 
follow in the warrior's path. ' 

The time and place for the conference were fixed. 

Keview Exercise. — Parse each of the Nomina- 
tives in the foregoing sentences. 

Observation 4. — Two or more nominatives con- 
nected by and, if used to express only one subject, 
require a verb in the singular. 

Model for Parsing. — " If that skilful painter 
and glazier comes to town, be sure to employ him." 
" Comes" is an intrans. verb, irr., act. v., ind. m., 
pres. t., 3d p., and in the sing, n., because its two 
nominatives, "painter" and "glazier," express only 
one subject, according to Obs. 4, E. II. (Quote Obs.) 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercises. — Parse each of the Verbs in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

My friend and teacher has gone to England. 

My Lord and Saviour bids me come. 

That distinguished poet, orator, and scholar has 
fallen. 

Why is dust and ashes proud ? 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse each of the Nomina- 
tives in the foregoing sentences. 

Observation 5. — Two or more nominatives in 
the singular, connected by or or nor, require a verb 
in the singular. 

Note. — If any one of the nominatives thus connected by or or 
nor is plural, the verb must be plural. 

Model for Parsing. — " Ignorance or prejudice 
has caused the mistake." " Has caused" is a trans, 
verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., perf. t., 3d p., and in the 
sing, n., because its two nominatives, " ignorance" 
and " prejudice," are connected by or, according to 
Obs. 5, E. II. (Quote Obs.) 

Exercises. — Parse all the Verbs in the following 
sentences : 

Some idiot or madman has done this act. 

Neither gold nor silver is found in that county. 

Neither time nor tide waits for man. 

Neither the troops, nor their commander, were to 
be seen. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse all the Nominatives 
in the foregoing sentences. 

Observation 6. — When a verb has nominatives 
of different persons, connected by and, the verb 



SYNTAX. 101 

agrees with the first person rather than the second, 
and with the second rather than the third. 

Observation 7, — When a verb has nominatives 
of different persons, connected by or or nor, the verb 
agrees in person with the nominative nearest to it. 

Model for Parsing. — "He and I shared the 
peach between us." " Shared" is a trans, verb, reg., 
act. v., ind. m., past t., in the 1st p., according to 
Obs. 6, E. II. (Quote Obs.), and in the pi. n., accord- 
ing to Obs. 3, E. II. (Quote Obs.) 

Exercises. — Parse all the Verbs in the following 
sentences : 

You and Susan have studied your lessons. 

You and I have forgotten our books. 

Either thou, or the teacher, or I am mistaken. 

Either thou, or I, or the teacher is mistaken. 

Either the teacher, or I, or thou art mistaken. 

The teacher, I, and you are mistaken. 

Eevieyv Exercise. — Parse all the Nominatives 
in the foregoing sentences. 

EULE III. 
A Transitive Yerb, in the Active Voice, 

GOVERNS THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 

Explanation. — The object of the verb is that upon which the 
action terminates. " I have written my copy." Here, " copy" is 
the object of the verb " have written." It is that upon which the 
act of writing terminates, or in which it ends. "Him I know, 
but who art thou?" Here, "him" is the object of "know." It 
would not be according to the Rule to say "He. I know." The 
object of the verb must be in the objective case. That is the 
9* 



102 ENGLISH GRx^MMAR. 

meaning of the Rule. A transitive verb, in the active voice, 
always has an object, and that object is in the objective case. 

Exercise in finding the Object. — How is the 
object of a verb found? (See p. 33.) Find the 
object of the verb in each of the sentences in the 
Ex. on p. 33. 

Model for Parsing. — " James writes a letter." 
"Letter" is a com. noun, n. g., sing, n., 3d p., and is 
in the obj. c, governed by the active transitive verb 
"writes," according to Rule III. (Quote.) 

Exercises. — Parse the objects of all the verbs in 
the following sentences : 

If you love God, keep his commandments. 

Temperance promotes health. 

The dog might have bitten the boy on the hand, 
if he had not been watched by the driver. 

The merchant sold a yard of cloth. 

He saw a flock of wild pigeons and called his 
father's attention to them. 

Review Exercise. — Parse all the Nominatives 
in the foregoing sentences. 

Parse all the Yerbs. 

Note. — This Rule applies to Personal and Relative Pronouns 
in the objective case, as well as to Nouns. The Relative Pronoun, 
when in the objective case, generally precedes the verb by which 
it is governed; as, "The book which you see is mine." Here, 
"which" is the object of the verb " see," and is placed before it. 

Model for Parsing. — "James called him" 
"Him" is a pers. pronoun, 3d p., masc. g v sing, n., 
and in the obj. a, governed by the act. trans, verb 
"called," according to Eule III. (Quote.) 



SYNTAX. 103 

Note. — The parsing of the Pronoun here is complete as far as 
it goes. But there are other things to be learned concerning it 
under Rule VII., before it can be entirely complete. 

Exercise. — Parse the objects of all the Verbs in 
the following sentence : 

The man whom I saw, informed me that he had a 
collection of wild beasts, which he would exhibit if 
you would let him. 

Review Exercise. — Parse all the Nominatives 
in the foregoing sentence. 

Parse all the Verbs. 

Observation. — A participle of a Transitive verb, 
in the Active voice, governs the objective case. 

Model for Parsing. — "The boy having eaten 
unripe fruit, became sick." "Fruit" is a com. noun, 
n. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the obj. c, governed by 
the participle, "having eaten," according to Obs., 
B. III. (Quote Obs.) 

Exercises. — Parse the objects both of the Verbs 
and the Participles in the following sentences : 

The family, having read a chapter, closed the 
Bible, and continued their devotions. 

The teacher observed a boy breaking the rules. 

After capturing the fort, the troops entered the 
city. 

Review Exercise. — Parse all the Nominatives 
and all the Verbs in the foregoing sentences. 

Compose sentences, as follows: 

Having "flower" for the subject of a verb; 

Having " flower" for the object of a verb ; 

Having "flower" for the object of a participle; 



104 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 

Containing two nominatives connected by "and ;" 

Containing two nominatives connected by " and," 
but denoting the same subject ; 

Containing two nominatives connected by " or ;" 

Containing nominatives of different persons. 
' Fill the blanks in the following sentences with 
verbs in the present tense, indicative mood. 

The society many members. 

The audience bright eyes. 

The company by a captain. 

John and I in the same class. 

John or I always at the head of the class. 

The draper and tailor cloth and 

clothes. 

EULE IY. 
A Preposition governs the Objective Case. 

Explanation. — This means that a preposition requires its 
object, or the word which follows it to complete the sense, to 
be in the objective case. 

Exercise. — How may the object of a preposi- 
tion be found? (See p. 33.) Find the object of 
each of the prepositions in the following sentence : 
William put his hat on a table in the dining room, 
at the time of recess, when the family were at 
dinner." 

Model for Parsing. — " James" writes a letter 
to his father" "Father" is a com. noun, masc. g., 
sing, n., 3d p., and in the obj. a, governed by the 
preposition "to," according to Eule IV. (Quote.) 

Model for Parsing the Preposition. — "To" 



SYNTAX, 105 

is a preposition, showing the relation between 
" writes," and " father," and governs " father" in 
the obj. a, according to Rule IV. (Quote.) 

Note. — This Rule applies to Personal and Relative Pronouns 
in the objective case, as well as to Nouns. "That," when used 
as a relative pronoun, always precedes the preposition by which 
it is governed; as, "Every book that you have referred to, is 
mine." Here, "that" is governed by the preposition "to," and 
precedes it. If we were to use "which" here instead of "that," 
the arrangement would be different; thus, "Every book to which 
you have referred, is mine." 

Exercises. — Parse all the Prepositions, and also 
the Nouns and Pronouns which are the objects of 
them, in the sentences on page 87. 

Observation 1. — "When a preposition is followed 
by an adjective without a noun, supply the noun, 
and parse the preposition accordingly. Thus, " God 
seeth in secret." " In" is a preposition, showing the 
relation between "seeth" and "places," or some 
such noun understood. The meaning is, " God seeth 
in secret places." 

Exercises. — Supply and parse the Nouns under- 
stood in the following sentences : 

She has gone to her home on high at last. 

He tried in vain the remedy which you proposed. 

William at first denied the fact. 

He selected an apple from the best in his orchard. 

Keview Exercise. — Parse all the Nominatives 
in the foregoing sentences. 

Parse all the Objectives, except those already 
parsed. 

Observation 2. — The preposition is frequently 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

omitted, particularly after verbs of giving and pro- 
curing ; after adjectives of likeness or nearness ; and 
before nouns denoting time, place, price, measure, &c. 

Exercises. — Supply the prepositions in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

The clouds seemed like piles of snow. 

A bird can fly twenty miles an hour. 

Children near the sea gather shells. 

The merchant sold mother, for fifty cents, a yard 
of silk worth one dollar, and promised to get her 
some better silk at a less price the next week. 

Parse all the objects of Prepositions (expressed or 
understood) in the foregoing sentences. 

Parse all the objects of Verbs. 

Parse all the Yerbs (except those in the infinitive 
mood). 

Parse all the Nominatives. 

KITLE V. 

The Possessive Case is governed by the 
Noun signifying the thing possessed. 

Explanation. — This means that the word in the possessive case 
is dependent upon some noun expressing the thing possessed. 
The sense would not be complete without such a noun. "I used 
Mary's book. " Here, "book" is the thing which Mary possesses. 
If we leave out "book," and say "I used Mary's," the sense is 
not complete. Where there is a word in the possessive case, there 
must always be a noun (expressed or understood) signifying the 
thing possessed, and the word in the possessive case is dependent 
upon that noun. 

Note 1. — This Rule applies equally to Personal and Relative 
Pronouns, when in the possessive case. 



SYNTAX. 107 

Model for Parsing. — "James writes a letter by 
his father's permission.' 7 " Father's' 7 is a com. noun, 
masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the poss. a, governed 
by "permission/ 7 according to Eule V. (Quote.) 

Exercises. — Parse all the Nouns and Pronouns 
in the possessive case in the following sentences : 

Cruel boys rob birds 7 nests. 

The widow's friend will not defraud her children. 

The boy's politeness made him a pattern for other 
boys' imitation. 

The girl, whose book was lost, has found it. 

He preferred a shepherd's life to a monarch's 
throne. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse the subjects of all the 
Verbs in the foregoing sentences. 

Parse the objects of all the Verbs and Preposi- 
tions. 

Parse all the Prepositions. ' 

Parse all the Verbs. 

Note 2. — The governing word is often omitted. In that case, 
supply the omission, and parse as above. 

Exercises. — Supply the word omitted in each of 
the following sentences, and parse the words in the 
possessive case : 

My brother's behaviour is better than my sister's. 

She went to the baker's and bought some bread. 

He spent the morning at the lawyer's. 

They stopped at the bookseller's and made their 
purchases. 

The earth is the Lord's. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Eeview Exercises. — Parse the subjects of all 
the Verbs in the foregoing sentences. 

Parse the objects of all the Verbs and Preposi- 
tions. 

Parse all the Verbs. 

Parse all the Prepositions. 

Note 3. — In complex names, the sign of the possessive is put 
only after the last, and the whole complex name is parsed as one 
word. 

Model for Parsing. — "George Washington's 
Farewell Address has just been read." "George 
Washington's," a complex name, is a prop, noun, 
masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., poss. c, &c. 

Exercises. — Parse the Nouns in the possessive 
case in the following sentences : 

Eepeat, if you can, the last sentence of Patrick 
Henry's celebrated speech. 

Did you ever hear of Sir Eobert Walpole's cele- 
brated maxim ? 

I have just seen Don Antonio Sebastian's likeness. 

EULE VI. 
A Noun or Pronoun, put in Apposition 

WITH ANOTHER, AGREES WITH IT IN CASE. 

Note. — The words in apposition may be in any case, nomina- 
tive, possessive, or objective. 

Explanation. — A word is in apposition with another, when it 
is added as an explanatory term, or when a word is repeated for 
the sake of emphasis. 

Examples: "I left my home, my happy home.'''' Here, the 
second "home" is in apposition with the one first mentioned. It 
is repeated for the sake of emphasis. 



SYNTAX. 109 

"Paul, the apostle, was present." "Apostle" is in apposition 
with " Paul." It is added to explain which Paul is referred to. 

"Henry Latimer came in." " Latimer" is in apposition with 
"Henry." It is added to explain that we do not mean "Henry 
Thompson" or some other "Henry." 

In all such cases, however, as this last, when several words form 
one complex proper name, they are parsed together as one word. 
(See Note 2, Rule I.) 

Model for Parsing. — " James writes a letter to 
his brother John." " John" is a prop, noun, masc. g., 
sing, n., 3d p., obj. c, in apposition with the noun 
"brother," according to Kule VI. (Quote.) 

Exercises. — Parse the Nouns and Pronouns in 
Apposition in the following sentences : 

Kidd, the notorious pirate, suffered the felon's 
reward, death upon the gallows. 

William bought a book for his sister Mary. 

Mr. Embury crossed the river Delaware in the 
ferry boat, Eagle. 

Why do you assail me, your only brother? 

Harrisburg, the capital of Pennsylvania, lies ion 
the east bank of the river Susquehanna. 

Preserve your health, the poor man's riches, the 
rich man's bliss. 

Review Exercise. — Parse all the Nouns, Pro- 
nouns, Verbs, and Prepositions in the foregoing 
sentences. 

Observation 1.— When a word is in apposition 
with another in the possessive case, the sign of the 
possessive is sometimes omitted after one of them. 
Example : 

"This is the wandering wood, this Error's den, 

A monster yile, whom God and man do hate." 
10 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Here, the meaning is, "This is the den of Error, a monster, 
&c." "Monster" is added to explain who "Error" is, and is in 
apposition with it. 

Model for Parsing. — " Monster" is a com. noun, 
masc. g., sing. n. ; 3d p., poss. c, in apposition with 
" Error's," the sign of the possessive being omitted, 
according to Obs. 1, E. VI. (Quote Obs.) 

Exercises. — Parse the Nouns in Apposition in 
the following sentences : 

We stood by Kidd, the pirate's, grave. 

" Here lies his head upon the lap of earth, 
A youth to fortune and to fame unknown." 

We saw Napoleon, the first Emperor's, tomb. 

Observation 2. — Nouns and pronouns coming 
after the verb to be, and after many other intransi- 
tive verbs, and likewise after some transitive verbs 
in the passive voice, such as to be called, to be named, 
&c, are in apposition with the noun or pronoun 
before the verb, and in the same case with it. 

Example. — " The father wished the boy to be called William." 
Here, "boy" before the verb "to be called," is in the objective 
case, and "William," coming after the verb, and in apposition 
with boy, is likewise in the objective case. 

Model for Parsing. — "William" is a prop, 
noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., obj. c, in apposition 
with " boy," according to E. VI. (Quote.) 

Exercises. — Parse the Nouns in Apposition after 
verbs in the following sentences : 

Benedict Arnold was a traitor to his country. 

Ellen is the best scholar in the class. 

John Jacob Astor came to New York a poor boy. 
He died the richest man in the United States. 



SYNTAX. Ill 

Godliness with contentment is great gain. 

Sylla was proclaimed dictator by the Senate. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse all the Nouns, Pro- 
nouns, Verbs, and Prepositions in the foregoing 
sentences. 

BULE VII. 
A Pronoun agrees with the Noun for which 

IT STANDS IN GENDER, NUMBER AND PERSON. 

Model for Parsing. — " John, who was at school, 
wrote a letter to his father." " Who" is a rel. pron., 
3d p., sing, n., masc. g., to agree with its antecedent 
" John," according to Eule VII. (Quote), and is in 
the nom. c. to " was," according to Rule I. (Quote.) 

Exercises. — Parse the Pronouns in the following 
sentences : 

He who is a stranger to industry, may possess 
wealth, but he cannot enjoy it. 

He only who is active and industrious, can expe- 
rience real pleasure. 

Trust not him whose friendship is bought with 
gold, nor him whom you have not proved. 

I received the letter which you wrote to me. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse all the Nouns, Verbs, 
and Prepositions in the foregoing sentences. 

Observation 1. — When a pronoun stands for a 
Collective noun, in the singular, the pronoun will 
be plural if the idea of the noun is plural. But 
if the idea expressed by the noun is singular, the 
pronoun will be singular, and will be in the neuter 
gender. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Examples. — " Send the class home that they may get their 
dinners." We mean here the individual members who compose 
the class, and therefore we use " they." But suppose we say, 
" The class contains thirty scholars. It is too large. It must be 
divided into sections." Here, we do not refer to the individual 
scholars, but to the class as a whole, as a unit, or single mass. 
Therefore, we use the pronoun ''it," singular and neuter. 

Model for Parsing. — "It" (in the last example) 
is a pers. pron., 3d p., and in the sing, n., n. g., to 
agree with the collective noun "class," according to 
E. VII., Obs. 1 (Quote Obs.), and is in the nom. c. to 
"is," according to E. I. (Quote.) 

Exercises. — Parse the Pronouns in the following 
sentences : 

Jesus sent the multitude away that they might 
buy themselves bread. 

The crowd were shouting at the top of their 
voices, and the leader was unable to restrain them. 

The brigade was too large ; it was therefore sub- 
divided into two brigades. 

He saw a train which consisted of fifty cars. 

The society had a disloyal object; it was therefore 
abolished by government. 

The captain reproved the company because they 
came upon the ground without their muskets. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse all the Nouns, Verbs, 
and Prepositions in the foregoing sentences. 

Exercises. — Fill the blank spaces in the follow- 
ing sentences with the proper pronouns : 

The shepherd marked his flock in order that he 
might know . 

The ringleader of the mob led to destruc- 
tion. 



SYNTAX. 113 

He asked the advice of his Council; but 

could not agree. 

Review Exercise. — Parse all the Nouns, Pro- 
nouns, Verbs, and Prepositions in the foregoing 
sentences. 

Observation 2. — When a pronoun stands for 
two or more nouns or other pronouns, connected by 
and, the pronoun should be plural. 

Examples. — " William and Mary were both there ; I saw them." 
"He and Mary were both there; I saw them." "He and she 
were both there; I saw them." "Them" in the first example 
stands for two nouns, in the second example for a noun and a 
pronoun, and in the third for two pronouns. 

Observation 3. — When a pronoun stands for 
two or more nouns, or other pronouns, connected by 
and, but used to express only one subject, the pro- 
noun should be singular. 

Example. — He knew his Lord and Saviour, and loved him. 

Observation 4. — When a pronoun stands for 
two or more nouns, or other pronouns, in the singu- 
lar, connected by or or nor, the pronoun should be 
singular. 

Example. — Either play or work is injurious, if it is carried to 
excess. 

Observation' 5. — When a pronoun stands for 
two or more nouns, or other pronouns, of different 
persons, connected by and, the pronoun agrees with 
the first person rather than the second, and with the 
second rather than the third. 

Example — " William and I had our skates with us." "Our" 
and "us" are plural, according to Obs. 2, because they stand for 
10* H 



114 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

two subjects, " William' ' and "I." But one of these subjects, 
"William," being in the third person, and the other, "I," being 
in the first person, the pronoun which stands for both must be in 
the first person. We would not express the meaning, if we wert 
to say, " William and I had their skates with them." 

Model for Parsing. — "Us" (in the last example) 
is a pers. pron., standing for "William" and "I," it 
is in the 1st p., according to Obs. 5, E. VII. (Quote 
Obs.), pi. n., according to Obs. 2, E. VII. (Quote Obs.), 
and obj. a, governed by the preposition "with," 
according to E. IV. (Quote.) 

Exekcises on Observations 2, 3, 4, and 5. — 
Parse the Pronouns in the following sentences : 

Buy tea and coffee and pay for them. 

Susan and Mary had their lessons well prepared, 
before they came to school. 

Neither Susan nor Mary had her lessons well 
prepared when she came to school. 

A hornet, or a wasp, when it stings, causes great 
pain. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse all the Nouns and 
Verbs in the foregoing sentences. 

Parse all the Pronouns in the Exercises under 
Obs. 7, E. II. 

Observation 6. — When a pronoun stands for an 
infinitive mood, or for a part of a sentence, used as 
a noun, the pronoun should be in the third person, 
neuter gender, and singular number. But if there 
are two or more infinitives, or clauses, making dis- 
tinct subjects, then the pronoun should be plural. 

Examples. — "To contradict an aged person, may be rude, but 
it is not criminal." " It" here stands for the infinitive mood, 



SYNTAX 115 

" to contradict," or the part of a sentence, " to contradict an aged 
person," used as a noun. It means the same as the noun "con- 
tradiction." 

"To be temperate, and to use exercise in the open air, are good 
preservatives of health, but they are not infallible." Here, "they" 
stands for the two infinitives, as two distinct subjects, and there- 
fore it is plural. 

Note. — In parsing a pronoun that stands for an infinitive, or a 
part of a sentence, quote this Observation for the person, gender, 
and number." 

Observation 7. — The pronoun It is sometimes 
used indefinitely, without standing for any particular 
noun. 

Examples. — " Come and trip it as you go." " It rains." " It 
was he that did it." &c. 

Observation 8.— Who is used in referring to 
persons; Which is used in referring to inferior 
animals, to things without life, to infants, to collec- 
tive nouns where unity of idea is expressed, and to 
persons in asking questions where the particular 
individual is inquired for. 

Exercises. — Supply the proper Eelative in the 
following sentences: 

The tiger is a beast of prey, destroys with- 
out pity. 

This is the friend I love. 

That is the vice I hate. 

The infant you see in the cradle, is my 

brother. 

He asked, of all those men came to his 

assistance. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse the Pronouns thus 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

supplied, the other Pronouns, the Nouns and the 
Verbs, in the foregoing sentences. 

Observation 9. — That is used instead of Who 
or Which in the following cases : 

1. After the Superlative; as, "It is the best that 
can be got." 

2. After Same ; as, " He is the same kind-hearted 
man that he used to be." 

3. After All, or any similar antecedent express- 
ing a general meaning, limited by the following 
verb; as, " All that heard me can testify." 

4. After Who; as, " Who, that has seen anything 
of human nature, can believe it?" 

5. After It, used indefinitely; as, "It was he that 
did it." 

6. After two antecedents, one requiring who, and 
the other requiring which; as, "The man and the 
house that we saw yesterday." 

Model for Parsing. — "That" (in the last ex- 
ample) is a rel. pron., relating to the two antecedents, 
"man" and "house," and used instead of "who" or 
"which," according to Obs. 9, E. VII. (Quote Obs.), 
pi. n., according to Obs. 2, E. VII. (Quote Obs.), and 
obj. c, governed by the verb "saw," according to 
E. III. (Quote.) 

Exercises. — Parse all the Pronouns in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

Solomon was the wisest man that the world ever 
saw. Who that reads the Bible, will not acknow- 
ledge the truth of this? 

It is the same picture that you saw before. 



SYNTAX. 117 

The gunner and the dog that you saw yesterday 
were killed. 

Review Exercise. — Parse all the Nouns and 
Yerbs in the foregoing sentences. 

Observation 10. — Either the relative or the ante- 
cedent may be sometimes omitted. 

Examples. — " The letter [which] you wrote on Saturday, came 
to hand." :" [The person] who lives to nature, rarely can be 

poor." 

Exercises. — Supply and parse the Relative, or 
the Antecedent, in the following sentences : 

I thank you for the kindness you showed my 
nephew. 

The largest tree T ever saw was in California. 

Whom the Lord loveth, he chasteneth. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse the Nouns, Pronouns, 
Verbs, and Prepositions in the foregoing sentences. 

Model for the Compound Relative. — "He 
reads what is written." " What" is a comp. rel. pron., 
equivalent to "that which." As "that," it is in the 
obj. c, and governed by reads, according to R. III. 
(Quote.) As "which," it is in the nom. c, and nom. 
to "is written," according to R. I. (Quote.) 

Exercises. — Parse the Compound Relatives in 
the following sentences : 

Regard the quality, rather than the quantity, of 
what you read. 

Choose what is right ; custom will make it agree- 
able. 

Whoever follows fashion, makes himself a slave 
to others. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse the other Pronouns, 
the Nouns, and Verbs in the foregoing sentences. 

EULE VIII. 

An Article belongs to the Noun which it 
qualifies or points out. 

Note. — The noun to which the article belongs is often under- 
stood. In that case, supply the noun, and parse the article 
according to the Rule, as belonging to the noun thus supplied. 

Examples. — "Turn neither to the right [hand], nor to the left 
[hand]." "Henry the Eighth [king of that name] was then 
reigning." 

Model for Parsing. — " James writes a letter." 
"A" is the ind. art., and belongs to the noun " letter," 
according to K. VIII. (Quote.) 

Exercises. — Parse the Articles in the following 
sentences : 

When crossing a bridge, you must always keep 
to the right. 

James the Second was banished from the king- 
dom. 

Give glory to God in the highest. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse all the Nouns, Pro- 
nouns, Verbs, and Prepositions in the foregoing 
sentences. 

EULE IX. 

An Adjective belongs to the Noun or Pro- 
noun WHICH IT QUALIFIES. 

Note 1. — In the case of the Infinitive mood, or a part of a 
sentence, used as a noun, an adjective may qualify such Infinitive 



SYNTAX 119 

or clause, just as it would any other noun, and should be parsed 
accordingly, as belonging to it. 

Note 2. — The noun to which the adjective belongs is sometimes 
omitted. In that case, supply the omission, and parse the adjec- 
tive according to the Rule, as belonging to the noun thus supplied. 

Model for Parsing. — " James writes a long 
letter. 7 ' "Long" is an adj., in the pos. deg. ("long, 
longer, longest,"), and belongs to ''letter," which it 
qualifies or describes, according to R. IX. (Quote.) 

Exercises. — Parse the Adjectives in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

A great reward has been offered for the early 
detection of the frightful crime. 

The best men are liable to occasional infirmities 
of temper. 

To eat unripe fruit is injurious. 

To tell a lie is bad ; to tell a second lie to hide 
the first, is worse. 

The poor have claims on the rich. 

Review Exercise. — Parse the Articles, Nouns, 
Verbs, and Prepositions in the foregoing sentences. 

RULE X. 

An Adjective Pronoun belongs to the Noun 
or Pronoun which it qualifies or points out. 

Observation. — The Distributives and Demon- 
stratives agree in number with the nouns to which 
they belong. 

Note. — The distributives, each, every, eithei, neither, are all 
singular. Of the demonstratives, this and that are singular, these 
and those plural. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Model for Parsing. — " James wrote this letter." 
"This" is a dem. adj. pron., belonging to "letter," 
according to E. X. (Quote), and is singular to agree 
with it, according to Obs., E. X. (Quote.) 

Note 1. — In parsing any other adjective pronoun, except the 
distributives and indefinites, the last part of the Model must be 
omitted. 

Note 2. — In case the noun is omitted, supply it, as you do in 
parsing adjectives and articles. 

Exercises. — Parse the Adjective Pronouns in the 
following sentences : 

That style of dress is more admired by some than 
this. Let each lady indulge her own taste. 

Those who go to war must expect to suffer many 
privations ; some will die, and others lose their 
limbs. 

Every station in life has its cares. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse the other Pronouns, 
the Nouns, Adjectives, Articles, and Verbs in the 
foregoing sentences. 

EULE XI. 

A Participle belongs to the Noun or Pro- 
noun WHICH IT QUALIFIES. 

Model for Parsing. — " James, having written a 
letter, sent it to the Post-office." u Having written" 
is a compound perfect participle, active voice, of the 
irr. trans, verb " to write" (write, wrote, written), and 
belongs to "James," according to E. XI. (Quote.) 



SYNTAX. 121 

Exeecises. — Parse the Participles in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

Having been engaged all day, he felt fatigued. 

The fire breaking out in the night, and the night 
being dark, the house was destroyed, the inmates 
barely escaping with their lives, with their clothing 
scorched, and some with limbs broken or bodies 
mutilated. 

Thomas being employed at his studies, his atten- 
tion could not be diverted by the sports of the 
younger members of the family ; but, having com- 
pleted his lessons, he looked on their sports delighted, 
and he even joined in them with pleasure. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse the Nouns, Pronouns, 
Articles, Adjectives, Verbs, and Prepositions in the 
foregoing sentences. 

Observation 1. — The participle is sometimes used 
as a noun and a participle at the same time. 

Example. — "Reading bad books is injurious." "Reading" is 
the subject of the verb "is," and therefore is used as a noun. 
But "books" is in the objective case, and is governed by "read- 
ing," and therefore " reading" is also a participle. In such cases, 
parse the participle as if it were a noun in the neuter gender, 
third person, singular. 

Exercises. — Parse the Participles in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

He earned a scanty support by picking rags. 

The officer arrested him for having broken a 
window by throwing a stone. 

William's violating the rules caused his expulsion 

from school. 

Having concealed his fault made it worse, 
ll 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Keview Exercise. — Parse the Nouns, Pronouns, 
Articles, Adjectives, Verbs, and Prepositions in the 
foregoing sentences. 

Observation 2. — The participle is sometimes used 
as a noun merely. 

Note. — When so used, parse the word simply as a noun in the 
third person, singular, neuter gender. 

Exercises. — Parse the Nouns with participial 
endings in the following sentences : 

He taught reading, writing, and arithmetic. 

Travelling in winter is not so pleasant as it is in 
other seasons. 

Avoid foolish talking and jesting. 

The painting of the house was done in the best 
manner. 

Observation 3. — The participle is sometimes used 
simply as an adjective. 

Note. — When a participle is so used, call it a participial adjec- 
tive, and parse it as any other adjective. A participle becomes 
simply an adjective, when it no longer expresses any idea of time, 
or governs a noun in the objective case. 

Exercises. — Parse the Participial Adjectives in 
the following sentences : 

He attended the funeral of his deceased friend, 
and saw his broken-hearted mother's tears falling 
over the corpse of her dear departed son. 

The fool's voice is compared to sounding brass or 
a tinkling cymbal. 

The mocking bird excels all American singing 
birds in its power of mimicking the warbling of the 
feathered tribes. 



SYNTAX. 123 

EULE XII. 

An Adveeb belongs to the Verb, Adjective, 
or other Adverb which it qualifies. 

Model for Parsing. — "James wrote a letter 
hastily." " Hastily" is an adv. in the pos. deg. 
(hastily, more hastily, most hastily), and belongs to 
the verb;" wrote," according to E. XII. (Quote.) 

Exercises. — Parse the Adverbs in the following 
sentences : 

Economy, prudently conducted, is the safeguard 
of many virtues. 

Live temperately. 

She is particularly beautiful* 

The most cautious are often deceived. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse all the other words in 
the foregoing sentences. 

Observation. — The adverbs, Nay, No, Yea, Yes, 
expressing simply affirmation or negation, contain 
in themselves a complete sense, and do not belong 
to any verb. 

EULE XIII. 

The Infinitive Mood is governed by the 
Verb, Adjective, or Noun on which it depends. 

Examples. — "He delights to tease his companions." Here, 
"to tease" depends on the verb "delights." That is the word 
with which it must be connected in order to make sense. 

" His time to die had not yet come." In this example, " to die" 
depends on time. 

" He was too stupid to learn" Here, " to learn" depends on an 
adjective. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Model for Parsing. — "James tried to write a 
letter." "To write" is a trans, verb, irr., act. v., 
inf. m., pres. t., and governed by the verb "tried," 
according to E. XIII. (Quote.) 

Exercises. — Parse the Infinitives in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

The Christian expects to go to heaven. 

The sinner was not ready to die. 

He was too scurrilous to be tolerated in decent 
society. 

The President was to have been inaugurated on 
last Friday. 

She seemed to love her child, and yet she was 
seen to treat it badly. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse all the other words in 
the foregoing sentences. 

Observation. — "To," the sign of the infinitive, 
is omitted after the verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, 
hear, feel, let, and some others. 

Note. — When these verbs are in the passive voice, the infinitive 
after them usually retains the "to." 

Exercises. — Parse the Infinitives in the follow- 
ing sentences 

They need not call her. She cannot hear them call. 

I dare do anything that is right. 

Do what I bid you do, and let me see it done 
quickly. 

It is the difference of their conduct which makes 
us approve the one and reject the other. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse all the other words in 
the foregoing sentences. 



SYNTAX. 125 

BULE XIV. 

A Conjunction" connects the words or sen- 
tences BETWEEN WHICH IT STANDS. 

Model for Parsing. — "James and John are 
brothers." "And" is a conjunction, connecting 
" James" and "John/ 7 according to E. XIV. (Quote.) 

Exercises. — Parse all the Conjunctions in the 
following sentences : 

Forget the faults of others, and remember your 
own. 

Study universal rectitude, and cherish religious 
hope. 

Practise humility, and reject everything in dress, 
carriage, or conversation, which has any appearance 
of pride. 

If you do these things, you shall never fail. 

Eeview Exercise. — Parse all the other words in 
the foregoing sentences. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

Note. — In parsing an Interjection, all that is necessary is to 
tell what part of speech it is. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

A sound mind and a sound body are the requisites 
for complete success. 

His father refuses to see him since he refuses to 
make amends for his misconduct. 

He bought a book at Butler's, the book^ell^c and 
publisher. 

Parse also the sentences on pa^e 8§: ' QUO 

r . „ 9 — - * 

IOBBJ 



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